SPIS TREŚCI / CONTENTS / ЗМІСТ

Global competition and the fate of China’s Belt and Road Initiative and the world

China’s contemporary Belt and Road Initiative (the “New Silk Road”) as the leading idea of China’s foreign policy in the President’s Xi Jinping era is an attempt to continue the unique tradition of the historical Silk Road. However, in the conditions of the present day, the great ideas of the Silk Road have to face in reality the challenges of the modern global world. The author shows the contemporary challenges (internal and external) facing international projects of the Belt and Road Initiative, and becoming their typical problems. The article could be used to formulate many multi-threaded conclusions, but in the end, the hope preveils that if the ideas of the Belt and Road were liberated from the context of global political competition, humanity would gain enormously. The conditions for accelerated economic growth would be created, promoting the idea of expansion based on peaceful cooperation, which – in the current era of tensions, unrest and a number of war outbreaks in the world – is particularly needed.

The legal platform for combating terrorism in Poland

This article addresses the issue of terrorism and its counteraction in Polish legislation. Its aim is to demonstrate how Polish law is prepared to prevent terrorist incidents and which agencies and authorities are responsible for these actions. The article applies the method of institutional-legal analysis. Based on it, conclusions can be drawn that Polish legislation is relatively well-prepared to combat terrorism.

Why can’t it be done differently? Limited voter representation in provincial assemblies (sejmiki) in the period of 2014–2024

The problem of distorting the representativeness of elections to provincial assemblies in Poland is widely noted. The local government elections in 2024 confirm the indicated state of affairs. In many situations, the natural electoral threshold significantly exceeds the statutory threshold, and large groups of citizens do not have their representation in the sejmiks, while the largest groupings are overrepresented. The authors of this article set out to compare the number of voters without representation in provincial assemblies after the introduction of the Electoral Code, i.e. in the 2014, 2018 and 2024 local elections, despite having voted for groupings that exceeded the statutory electoral threshold. The authors, using institutional-legal analysis and classical systemic analysis, also propose a simple way to solve the pointed out significant problem for the representativeness of the elections, which is the abandonment of the division of provinces into smaller electoral districts.

Attitudes of school youth towards homosexuality and adoption of children by homosexual couples

In our considerations, we address two issues in the social narrative: homosexuality and adoption of children by homosexual couples. The basis for these diagnoses are the results of nationwide surveys and sociological research carried out in the two decades of the 21st century. Especially in the second decade of the 21st century, the views of school youth on bioethical issues were subject to progressive liberalization (secularization of morality). In nationwide research at the turn of 2022–2023, conducted among secondary school students, it was found that homosexual relationships were rated as permissible by 50.7% of the surveyed school youth, “it depends” – 12.0%, unacceptable – 24.4%, hard to say – 12.9%; adoption of children by homosexual couples (respectively) – 41.0%, 17.6%, 29.9%, 11.5%.

Scholarly research of Mykola Bytynsky in Canada

The character of Mykola Bytynsky and his activities have not yet been sufficiently studied and analyzed, although they undoubtedly deserve it. Mykola Bytynsky is an expert in the field of heraldry and the author of a number of articles and surveys devoted to the problems of city and land heraldry in the historical and ethnographic regions of Ukraine. Due to the fact that the works of M. Bytynsky are scattered in various journals of public and religious associations of the Ukrainian community abroad, his scientific heritage has not become the object of special research. The article examines and analyzes the activities of M. Bytynsky in the field of Ukrainian heraldry and vexillology in Canada. M. Bytynsky was one of the organizers of the Ukrainian Genealogical and Heraldic Society, which contributed to the popularization of heraldry among the Ukrainian community in emigration. In his scientific activity, M. Bytynsky, first of all, devoted himself to the study of the city and territorial coats of arms of Ukraine, as evidenced by the huge number of publications during the years 1953-1972. M. Bytynsky was also engaged in the study of Ukrainian heraldic terminology, in particular the divisions of the shield, the peculiarities of the use of helmets, mottos, mantles, tents and crowns. Along with explanations, he gave examples of blazoning (description) of coats of arms. Due to the ideological commitment and political motivation of the city heraldry of the time in the Ukrainian SSR, the majority of city coats of arms were created in gross violation of the basic prescriptions of theoretical heraldry. M. Bytynsky, who was a leading specialist and practical specialist in the production of coats of arms, developed a number of recommendations that have not lost their relevance to this day and are an important evidence of the strength of the coat-of-arms tradition of Ukraine. For the first time, M. Bytynsky drew attention to the problems that objectively arose during the study of Ukrainian city symbols. The elaborated epistolary of M. Bytynsky also made it possible to analyze the creative ideas and directions of the researcher’s scientific activity, as well as the socio-cultural factors that had an impact on his life and activity. First of all, attention is drawn to the correspondence of M. Bytynsky with the famous heraldist R. Klymkevich, in which the researchers discussed a number of topical problems of Ukrainian city and land heraldry. Let’s note that the letters are carriers of versatile and unique information, which contributes to the understanding of a wide range of topical issues. Due to the lack of many sources, the letters will contribute to filling in the white spots in the study of scientific activity. In view of this, they are important sources for the reconstruction of the scientific activity of researchers of auxiliary historical disciplines.

Report from the Conference “Sustainable development of the EU: best practices for Ukraine” (Lviv, February 22, 2024)

Report from the 1st International African Congress (Toruń, February 21–23, 2024)

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Levels of historical education (common knowledge – reckless commemoration – indoctrination)

The text presents the variability of roles or functions assigned to historical knowledge that every person encounters in the life cycle from early education (family – home – kindergarten) to late adulthood (at the University of the Third Age). The text also indicates the tools for transmitting this knowledge. In this approach, school education is only a stage or form of transmission, but teachers from kindergarten to university and creators/politicians of the so-called historical policy. In such a broad educational perspective, historical self-knowledge and the conscience(s) of entities participating in education play an important role. The text is a message made from a Polish perspective, but with universal, supranational or supra-local features.

Defense education of Polish society in the years 1918–1939

The defense education of society followed the experience of World War I and the mass participation of huge masses of people in it, as well as the blurring of the boundaries between the war zone and the hinterland. This problem was noticed and in reborn Poland. It became the analysis of military theorists among whom predominantly had war experience and engaged in forecasting the nature of future wars. Over time, it became the domain of the leadership of the Polish Army and a planned, organized and sponsored activity

The article describes that in the second half of the 19th century, industrialization, urbanization, economic development in Azerbaijan influenced the views of enlighteners and drew the factor of modernity forth. Since then, enlightenment laid the foundation for the transition from Pan-Islamism to nationalism and from theocratic statehood to modern national statehood. Enlightenment separated literary and historical view from the Turkic-Islamic union and directed it to the formation and development of the Azerbaijani people`s national identity and self-awareness. At the beginning of the 19th century, “Europeanization, Westernization” manifested itself in the entire Turkic-Muslim world. There were supporters and opponents of this issue, as well as neutral ones among the Turkish-Muslim intelligentsia. Although the first generation of enlighteners in Azerbaijan appreciated Western culture, they preferred the East. Unlike the first generation of enlighteners, M.F.Akhundzada, as a supporter of Westernization, initiated the ideas of a constitutional state, Europeanization, modernization, democratic state-religion, such as Europe and the separation of religion from the state for the first time in the Turkic-Muslim world.

Russia and China’s rivalry in Central Asia from 2000 to 2024

This article examines the evolving dynamics of influence between the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China in Central Asia from 2000 to 2024. Central Asia, rich in natural resources such as gas, oil, uranium, and other minerals, has been a focus of attention for both countries. Initially, Russia maintained significant dominance, particularly in military and cultural spheres, while China expanded its presence mainly in economic and infrastructural domains, especially after launching the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The rivalry between these two powers intensified following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, which weakened Russia’s overall influence. In contrast, China has strengthened its ties with Central Asian states, bypassing Russian territory for its trade routes to Europe. Using neorealism and neoliberal institutionalism as theoretical frameworks, this article explores the balance of power and cooperation in Central Asia, as well as the role of international organizations such as the SCO, CSTO, and the Eurasian Economic Union. The study concludes that China has significantly expanded its presence in the region, while Russia has seen a decline in influence, although it remains a key player, especially in military and security matters.

20th Congress of the Communist Party of China – Beijing, October 2022. Continuation or discontinuation of PRC policy? Remarks on the sidelines of CCP General Secretary Xi Jinping’s Speech at the Opening of the 20th CCP Congress on 16 October 2022 in Beijing

In foreign policy, the People’s Republic of China continues its course of peaceful independent policy and seeks to integrate numerous developing countries around it, which is particularly served by the Belt and Road Initiative. The guarantee of continuity is the person of Xi Jinping (and the new leadership), concentrating in his hands the highest party, state and military functions, who has been given a mandate to continue to exercise these functions, which will probably be confirmed at the spring session of the National People’s Congress.

Systemic struggles of the Security Service against the Catholic Church in Podhale in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Selected examples from the Nowy Targ area

The article illustrates the struggle of the communist authorities of the People’s Republic of Poland against the Catholic Church in the local dimension on the basis of factography contained in the files of the security apparatus files from the 1950s and 1960s. The Marxist-Leninist ideology was to oust the Catholic religion from the consciousness of Poles and to completely laicise society, replacing faith with an atheistic utopia. The text gives examples of how the communist apparatus of power restricted and prevented freedom of religious practice on the example of the Podhale region. The multifaceted nature of the issues of religiosity in the analysed areas made it necessary to present the most representative forms and methods used by the communist authorities, both central and local, whose link directly involved in surveillance and repression was the security apparatus, with the help of local agencies of the communist state administration, including the Religious Affairs, Internal Affairs, Finance, Architecture and Construction, Penal and Administrative Colleges of the Presidiums of Municipal and District National Councils. The ‘people’s’ authorities enacted laws that prohibited the construction of religious buildings, the free public profession of faith, pilgrimages, processions, and the teaching of religion in schools. The communist minority imposed on the vast majority measures aimed at eliminating religious symbols from public space, thus institutions (including educational institutions), forbidding pastoral ministry outside the walls of temples, reviewing statements, sermons, state teachings, taking a wide range of preventive measures (e.g. probing and frightening talks, called ‘preventive’, ‘warning’), as well as punitive ones (bringing criminal proceedings and trials, imposing fines and financial penalties, dismissal, etc.). The text gives the issues and matters dealt with on an ongoing basis by the security apparatus operating in the Podhale region, which described the highlanders as strongly religiously fanaticised and thus not susceptible to the influence of an ideology that was to completely secularise them.

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Public Diplomacy of the Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan in Ireland

Public diplomacy serves as an indispensable tool of soft power, enabling states to influence the international community through the appeal of their culture, values, and policies. This practice is primarily carried out by government institutions, including ministries of foreign affairs, diplomatic and consular missions, and sectoral ministries. Additionally, representatives of the diaspora often play a key role, facilitating communication with the political and cultural elites of target countries, advocating for the interests of their homeland, and fostering intercultural connections with the public in their countries of origin. Effective public diplomacy relies significantly on a state’s ability to engage, including through its embassies, with members of its diaspora communities. This study examines the role of the Embassy of Pakistan in Ireland in strengthening bilateral relations through public diplomacy. Using a case study approach, the research analyses the embassy’s activities in 2023–2024 to identify the primary tools of Pakistani public diplomacy in Ireland. The embassy actively engages in cultural exchanges, educational programs, and digital diplomacy to enhance mutual understanding and collaboration. Historical contexts and shifts in political landscapes are adapted to strengthen cultural ties and advance economic interests. The analysis highlights the effectiveness of the embassy’s public diplomacy, focusing on initiatives, diverse cultural events, and educational exchanges that foster integration and cooperation between Pakistan and Ireland.

Financing and reconstruction of post-Teutonic castles after World War II. Nidzica, Kętrzyn, Giżycko – a selection of sources

The article presents the state of preservation of selected Teutonic castles after World War II, as a basis for considering the financing and restoration of several of them. Conservation and archival documentation is analyzed, supplemented by excerpts from interviews with former provincial conservationist Lucjan Czubiel. The role of the conservation office in the restoration of the castles was discussed, as well as the activities of the Monument Conservation Workshop. As a result of the research, it was possible to answer the questions: what were the difficulties of the Polish state in rebuilding these huge historic buildings? Why were these, and not other, objects chosen for funding? What procedures had to be met? What factors determined the effectiveness of the reconstruction and for what purposes were the castles used?

Human dignity and its threats in socio-moral teaching of Pope Benedict XVI

In the considerations contained in this article, we will pay special attention to the socio-moral teaching of Pope Benedict XVI on the dignity of the human person as a fundamental value and to situations that threaten human dignity in all areas of human life. One may even get the impression that anything that merits moral disapproval (morally reprehensible acts) is treated as a violation of human dignity or as insulting to human dignity. This may be due to the firm approval of the dignity that every human being possesses. This dignity – regardless of the historical and social context – must not be diminished or destroyed, on the contrary, it should be respected and protected. Also, economic, social, political and cultural life should be shaped in such a way that man can find his dignity and be able to realize it, but man, even humiliated, does not lose his dignity, he is still the image of God.

Economic Diplomacy of the Ukrainian World Congress as a Factor of Support for Ukraine (1991–2021)

In the scientific article, the author attempts to highlight the peculiarities of the forms and mechanisms of economic diplomacy of the Ukrainian World Congress (the UWC) as a factor of economic support for Ukraine in 1991–2021. A number of general and special scientific research methods were used to study this problem. Reports and materials of Congresses (conventions), annual reports and materials of collections of annual reports, the official website of the UWC, etc. were analysed. The author emphasizes that issues of economic development of Ukraine have been a priority for the UWC since its declaration of independence and in the future. At the same time, the ways of economic support of Ukraine as the main coordinating superstructure of Ukrainian communities in the world were different. Establishing cooperation for economic support of Ukraine is outlined in the Memorandum between the UWC and the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine that was signed in 2020. Based on a study of the activities of the World Council of Ukrainian Cooperatives and the Economic Prosperity and Investment Committee (EPIC), the article shows how the UWC, as a coordinator of actions of Ukrainians abroad, together with Ukrainian communities in the world, has contributed to the recovery of the credit cooperative movement in Ukraine and works to increase Ukrainian investment attractiveness among foreign audiences. A separate and important form of support for Ukraine’s economic growth for the UWC is the development of interaction between the diaspora and migrants and Ukraine. For this purpose, the organization conducts thematic events to raise awareness about Ukraine, actively cooperates with the International Organization for Migration (IOM), other public organizations. It was concluded that the economic diplomacy of the UWC to support Ukraine is systematic and productive. It was noted that the UWC can play the role of a “bridge” for establishing cooperation between Ukraine and the foreign community, in particular in the direction of attracting investments.

Periodicals of the Ziegelmasch displaced persons camp in Godenau as sources on the history of Ukrainian emigration in postwar Germany

The article analyses the sources of the „Information Sheet” and „Information newssheet” of the Ziegelmasch camp in Godenau with the purpose of covering the history of Ukrainian emigration and technical information of the source. The study showed that the „Information Sheet” of the Ziegelmasch camp was a typical periodical of the DP era, which was intended to inform campers about events in the world and in Ukraine as a whole. The source allows us to learn about the structure of the Ziegelmasch camp, events in it, the establishment of the camp in Alfeld and its relocation to Godenau. The reason for the creation of the „Information Sheet” was the elections in the Ziegelmasch camp in early 1947, which were held in response to the disregard for the previous elections due to violations of the electoral process. Although the main task of the „Information Sheet” was to provide information about the elections in the camp, the majority of the information relates not so much to the process as to the discussions about the elections among various members of the camp community. Based on a study of all currently known surviving copies of the „Information Sheet” and the „Information newssheet”, it can be concluded that the Ziegelmasch camp in Godenau, despite its small size compared to other camps in the British occupation zone, had a significant level of cultural life, which confirms the functioning of the” Information newssheet” as a permanent information resource of the camp, as well as the „Information Sheet” published at the time of the elections.

Visions of external and internal security in the political thought of peasant parties in the Second Polish Republic

Polish political thought of the interwar period basically focused on the achievements of two political camps: the right-wing one centered around National Democracy and its leader Roman Dmowski, and the Belvedere camp led by Jozef Pilsudski. The other political currents, except for the extremes, presented less comprehensive concepts of state and regional security, and both external and internal security. All serious political currents, excluding the extreme and nationalist ones, were united by the desire to fight for Poland’s national security. The unfavorable geopolitical position of the country and the threat coming from the two strongest neighbors (Germany, the USSR) were demonstrated. High hopes were attached to the idea of collective security, in particular, the activities of the League of Nations or regional agreements. The dangers to Poland’s internal security arising from the nationality structure of society (about one-third are national minorities and a large part of them living in compact clusters), social differentiation, including material poverty (the influence of extreme ideologies), district differences (the effect of partitions), and political divisions, were seen as great for Poland’s internal security.

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The impact of globalization on the welfare of the country’s population: finding the optimal path for Ukraine

The study of the impact of globalization processes on the well-being of the country’s population is becoming extremely relevant in modern realities. The article offers a study of the cause-and-effect relationships between globalization and well-being, as well as the peculiarities of the development of such links for Ukraine. As one of the modern megatrends of the world, globalization is an integral part of human development, and as a process, it has significantly affected the well-being of people. Its impact on well-being, however, is complex and multifaceted, with both positive and negative consequences. The term quality of life, in the concept of Welfare state, has acquired special significance in today’s society. And the measurement of quality of life, as well as GDP of ND, are the main measures of well-being. As the world becomes more and more similar, there is a need to compare the mutual influences between globalization and quality of life in Ukraine with other countries. For this purpose, a review of published works was made to identify existing studies, the relationship between globalization indices and well-being measurements was identified by the method of statistical analysis (correlation method), the nature of these mutual influences was determined with the help of empirical research, the comparative analysis showed the specifics of the level of globalization and the level of well-being in Ukraine in the comparison of such relationships in other countries. The main subject of the study is to initiate a discussion about what makes a country effective, as well as what steps can be taken to increase the level of well-being and efficiency in Ukraine. Although Ukraine is currently going through difficult periods of its history, it is at such times that significant transformations aimed at sustainable and balanced development in the conditions of the modern world order should be launched. The study found that there are both direct and inverse relationships between globalization and welfare indices. Basically, globalization (social and economic) has a positive impact on GDP and quality of life. The comparative analysis points to an effective path of globalization for Ukraine, first of all, it concerns the legal factor of globalization, namely the provision of policies, institutions that support the rule of law, economic freedoms, equal access to investment markets and the economy of all entities. From the point of view of social globalization, in order to increase Ukraine’s competitiveness and efficiency, its efforts should be directed to international education, the development of high technologies, ensuring equality of rights and access to benefits (fight against corruption), and cultural exchange. The war has many negative consequences for Ukraine, but at the same time, it can also be an incentive for positive changes.

Models of political and economic development of People’s Republic of China and Russian Federation as abasis for state relations in the 21st century

The article describes the political and economic systems in the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China. The main differences in the formation and functioning of the political and economic models of the mentioned countries are identified. The work emphasizes that the People’s Republic of China, unlike the Russian Federation, was able to introduce market mechanisms into the planned model of the economy more quickly. The introduction of market mechanisms allowed China to ensure stable development of the national economy and modify the political system to the requirements of reality without changing its fundamental principles. The Russian Federation, being in a similar situation, was unable to preserve the achievements of the Soviet Union and reoriented its industry from hightech to extractive. Currently, both countries are actively developing political and economic relations, but the reliability and durability of such processes have not been fully investigated.

Tradition as a component of the educational potential (on the example of Kremenets schools 1804–2019)

The genesis of elite education in Kremenets dates back to 1711. After the perturbations of 1783–1801 / 1803, the Jesuit base of the academic school of the Kingdom of Poland became the basis for the establishment of a school complex - the Kremenets Lyceum as the planned university. As a result of its achievements and the Tsar’s decree of 1819, the Lyceum obtained the formal status of a university, but in 1833 it was transferred to Kiev as the basis for the establishment of the Russian University of Saint Vladimir. The Orthodox theological seminary after 1834, and then the female secondary school, did not fill the gap left by the Lyceum. His myth was built by graduates. As a result, the school complex was recreated in Kremenets in 1919–1920 and was successful until 1939. However, the legend was fought in the USSR, including Kremenets itself, but still alive in Poland. The mental heirs of the educational tradition of Kremenets are contemporary Ukrainians and Poles. The new hosts of Kremenets gradually and selectively refer to the traditions of the first half of the 19th century. The Kremenets Lyceum was established in the same year as the oldest Ukrainian university in Kharkiv (1804). The small, provincial Kremenets has a chance to transform today’s Taras Shevchenko Regional Humanitarian Pedagogical Academy of Kremenets if it refers to the tradition of the years 1804–1939. The potential hidden in tradition was saved in the 19th century by the University of Krakow. An axiom is the view of Hannah Arendt that without tradition and authority education is impossible. The essence is an educational tradition, not a political or national one. However, contemporary studies of the views of Polish or Ukrainian students and academic teachers create a more complex picture, not fully consistent with the threats of 2022. The confrontation of the past and the educational tradition with the state of its contemporary reception is the essence of the presented text.

International scientific cooperation of Ukraine in the Antarctic

The article focuses on Ukraine’s international scientific cooperation in the Antarctic, which is part of the realization of Ukraine’s national interests in the region and the country’s Polar interests in general. The study makes an analysis of the main international treaties that create the legal field for international cooperation and form the basis of the Antarctic Treaty System. Author try to find out the state of adaptability of international legal norms that regulate international relations in Antarctic to Ukrainian legislation. The study shows the process of establishing Ukraine as a full-fledged subject of the International Antarctic community from obtaining its own Antarctic research station to acquiring the status of a Consultative Party with the opportunity to make decisions and accession to the main international organizations of the Antarctic Treaty. The research pays attention on the Great Britain’s role in this process. The article highlights that the galleries of corporation between Ukrainian scientists and foreign colleagues, in particular, participation in the international projects in the context of today’s challenges for Ukraine and the whole Antarctic Treaty System.

Religious legitimization of the temporal order

The category of legitimization mainly refers to the sphere of politics and power. It means validation and justification. The article intends to outline the perspective of religion as a factor of legitimation in social life, and the concept of legitimisation itself wants to be treated metaphorically. It refers mainly to Max Weber and his analyses of religion and religious attitudes in collective, social and political life. Religion is often perceived only as a social phenomenon, or even only through the prism of a certain human project. For some sociologists, religious legitimization in relation to events in the profanum sphere gives them meaning and makes them important for individuals and communities. The article also points out how such aspirations are often quite reductive, because they only emphasize the purely human, temporal and earthly meaning of religious reality, and the phenomenon of religion is treated instrumentally.

Recruitment by the Security Service as around-up – the Case Study

This essay sheds light on the dark sides of the recent history of Poland, in which the secret police of the People’s Republic of Poland stood guard over the socialist system. The most effective means of totalitarian control of society was to recruit secret collaborators in the so-called hostile environment. This task in the following decades required more and more “creativity” on the part of secret police officers, because on the one hand there was an increasing pressure of management for greater efficiency, and on the other hand, knowledge about the methods of operation of security organs became more common in society and at the same time its resistance to the regime increased totalitarian. A representative example is the person of Tadeusz Wielgórski, the secret police officer in Siedlce, who resorted to “creative action and bureaucracy” while working with three secret collaborators.

Peculiarities of the EU’s heritage diplomacy

This article aims to fill the gaps in the discourse on heritage diplomacy, especially concerning the EU’s efforts on heritage. Heritage diplomacy is a new term, the discussions about a more precise theorization of which are still ongoing. Thus, of particular interest was the question of the functions and defining features of the heritage diplomacy of the European Union in terms of its internal (“domestic”) and external (“foreign”) dimensions. Considering this research question, the article focuses on defining the main functions and features of the European Union’s heritage diplomacy activities through their heritage-specific projects and initiatives, especially given the intensification of the EU’s heritage activities in recent years. To do this, firstly, the concept of heritage diplomacy was analyzed and the role and place of heritage and heritage diplomacy in the EU policy was indicated. This article defines heritage diplomacy as the process of instrumentalising the tangible and intangible past (heritage) and the narratives around them to promote (geo-)culture and/or intercultural relations. Then, a careful analysis of the EU’s initiatives and projects on heritage (European Heritage Label, European Capitals of Culture, European heritage awards, UNESCO-EU joint projects, etc.) was done, through which many functions of EU’s heritage diplomacy were pointed out and categorized within the internal (“domestic”) and external (“foreign”) dimensions. Among the functions were defined the following: integration, creation and strengthening of European identity through making a European narrative, ‘Europeanisation’, cooperation, raising awareness of other issues (such as about the practices of sustainability), conservation, culture preservation, involvement of non-European cultures in the cultural dialogue (heritage as a platform), peacekeeping, etc. Although the two ought to be distinct, a blurring between the two dimensions was pointed out, resulting in the notion of the heritage diplomacy of the European Union as being mostly done on the level of the European Continent.

2nd Congress of Security Sciences “Security – Scientific Centers – Areas of Research and Education” (Kalisz, November 20–21, 2024)