“Get Brexit Done!” Comments on the election to the UK House of Commons on December 12, 2019

The 12 December 2019 General Election was a turning point in the recent political history of the United Kingdom. It ended one turbulent period in which British politics was characterized by high instability and indecision. Above all, it ended the extended deadlock with the work on ending the exit of the United Kingdom of the European Union (Brexit). It is clear that the result of the 2019 General Election was the culmination of the 2016 referendum on EU membership. The ruling Tories led by Prime Minister Boris Johnson stood for the elections under the slogan “get Brexit done”. As a result, the elections met the criteria for a second, indirect Brexit referendum. By winning the elections, the conservatives obtained a public mandate to complete the process of leaving the EU. The purpose of this article is to analyze the genesis and course of the 2019 elections to the House of Commons and to attempt to answer the question about the consequences of the election results.

Postal vote during the Covid-19 pandemic. Experiences from the Polish presidential election in 2020

In order to guarantee a higher level of implementation of the principle of universality of elections, many countries introduce additional (other than voting at a polling station) forms of voting in elections. Postal voting is one of the most popular alternative voting methods – complementary to traditional voting. If this form is the only way to participate in elections – there appear doubts as to the low degree of guarantee of the principle of universality. The aim of this article is to analyze Poland’s rather limited experiences with postal voting, with particular emphasis on the organization of elections during the Covid-19 pandemic.

Independence referenda in Catalonia and the reaction of the European Union

The article deals with the issues of independence referenda in Catalonia and the reaction of the European Union to them. These referenda were held in 2014 and 2017, with no approval from the Spanish government. At the beginning of the 21 st century, regionalist and nationalist movements have developed in the Member States of the European Union. An important determinant of these centrifugal forces was the economic crisis in Europe, which activated separatist tendencies in the economically developed regions of the EU. An ex- ample of such secessionism is Catalonia, where there was a revival of regional nationalism manifested by the wave of separatist movements. Disputes over the independence of Catalonia have been an important topic of consideration in the European Union in the context of its integrity. This text concentrates on the causes, course, and consequences of the independence referenda in Catalonia as well as on the EU’s reactions to the Catalonian crisis.

Awakening of the young generation. Political activity of youth – a case study

In modern democracies, the fundamental type of political activities of citizens is electoral participation of all eligible groups. The appearance of the youth issue in the political discourse is the result of recognizing the young generation as a significant social group. The young generation is perceived through the prism of innovation, potential and driving force of any changes. In discussions about the future of democracy, the young generation appears very often as a sign of hope for a better world based on mutual understanding, respect, trust, and solidarity. The youngest voters have the potential to bring new values to social life thanks to which we can become a full-scale civil society. Therefore, it is important to mobilize this social group to exercise their full rights.

Rights of national minorities in the election law of the Croatian Sabor

The article is devoted to the election law in force in the Republic of Croatia, in particular to the provisions regulating the procedure for electing representatives of national minorities. In Croatia, the electoral system for the Sabor consists of three separate methods of selecting deputies. The first and fundamental one involves the election of 140 deputies in 10 constituencies. In each of the constituencies, 14 representatives are elected on the basis of a proportional system, using the d’Hondt method and the 5% electoral threshold applied to the constituency scale. The second is used in the election of three representatives of the Croatian diaspora. The constituency is the entire world, and the distribution of seats is also made proportionally using the d’Hondt method. The third, used in the election of 8 representatives of national minorities, is the majority system. The article analyzes the method of electing minority representatives and the consequences of applying this election procedure.

Accountability of the Public Prosecutor’s Office – Institutional Approach

The purpose of the article is to consider the adoption of possibilities and the legitimacy of mechanisms of accountability of the prosecutor’s office as an institution, in particular by developing criteria for such an assessment that would lead to an increase in the level of efficiency of its functioning, as well as to an increase in the quality of services provided, assuming that the prosecutor’s office is perceived not only as an authority, but also as an entity providing public services. The above approach is inevitable in the era of spreading the idea of good governance, which is becoming more and more popular among the public authorities of modern, democratic countries. It can also be helpful in moving away from the dominant quantitative measurements, in favor of the prevailing qualitative approach of work results. The author analysed the dimensions of the prosecution’s responsibility at a level similar to political responsibility, characteristic for the assessment of the functioning of the legislative authority, and on the managerial level – reserved to the executive authority.

General Prosecutor before the Constitutional Tribunal – contribution towards protection of the genuine rule of law

 The General Prosecutor, due to the unrestricted legitimacy, its role in protecting the rule of law and authorities from Constitutional Tribunal act, is a legal entity of great importance in regard to proceeding before the Constitutional Tribunal. The actions of the General Prosecutor are required to be assessed in correspondence with the implementation of statutory and constitutional authorities, effectiveness in requesting Constitutional Tribunal, presenting written statements, as well as overall activity before the Constitutional Tribunal. In conclusions the remarks on the General Prosecutors’s contribution in protection rule of law are presented.

Construction of terms in the Polish Electoral Code and the possibility of exercising electoral rights. Selected problems

 There is no doubt that it is important for the electoral process to shape the structure and chronology of electoral activities properly. This is important both from the point of view of the elections organizing services, but also the electoral committees, candidates and the voters. The statutory arrangement of terms and directional assumptions concerning them should therefore take into account the needs and capabilities of both these groups. However, due to the fact that election practice has repeatedly indicated that the assumptions about deadlines cause significant problems during the electoral process, it is worth paying more attention to this issue. The purpose of this paper is to determine whether the Polish legislator, when making general assumptions about deadlines, took into account the nature of electoral rights, or whether he was mainly guided by organizational considerations

Amendment of 2018 (article 52 §2a of the Polish Electoral Code) as a guarantee of the implementation of active voting rights by disabled people. Analysis of the outline of the legislative process and theoretical and legal aspects

 The subject of the considerations made in the article is the theoretical and legal analysis of the amendment to the Polish electoral law relating to the issue of ensuring participation of disabled people in the electoral procedure. The outline of the legislative process initiated by submitting a deputy’s bill to amend certain acts in order to increase the participation of citizens in the process of electing, functioning and controlling certain public authorities (in particular by adding § 2a to article 52 of the electoral code), normative acts in the field of electoral law, insurance law, legal doctrine views are analyzed. In the article, the author answers the question whether the amendment to art. 52 of the electoral code, consisting of adding § 2a to it, is technical or warranty? The author conducts a polemic, during which he shows that Polish electoral law adopts the legal definition of disability. In addition, it is determined what causes of disability may justify the benefit of using art. 52 § 2a of the electoral code.

Comments on the constitutional principles of administrative law

 The constitution uses the term “rule” relatively rarely. We look for principles in an exponential way, thus establishing principles-norms and descriptive principles. Both of these categories are based on “system patterns” derived from legal science and jurisprudence. We apply numerous principles of constitutional law to administrative law. The principles of administrative law can be formulated on the basis of the Constitution, examples of which are provided in the text. At the same time, we take advantage of the inspiration of international law, but we can also derive from it rules which are self-binding in Poland, e.g. the validity and substitution character of the sources of EU and international law.

Constitutional foundations of the principle of freedom of contract in the context of the diversity of private law entities

The Constitution of the Republic of Poland does not contain a provision that would directly shape the freedom of contract as a rule of law. However, this principle is so important in the private law system that its constitutional origin is beyond doubt. This article is an attempt to establish the foundations of the principle of freedom of contract under the Constitution of the Republic of Poland and to show whether these grounds differ from each other depending on the type of entities that freedom inhere. For this purpose, the views presented in the doctrine were analyzed using the qualitative method. This allowed the thesis that the legislator shapes the foundations of the principle of freedom of contract for natural persons more widely than for other types of private law entities. This, in turn, in the author’s opinion, leads to legal inequalities and allows shaping further-reaching restrictions on the principle of freedom of contract in relation to private law entities other than natural person

Freedom of association in consumer organizations on the example of the Republic of Poland

 The article aims to analyze the freedom of association in the Republic of Poland in the context of the activities of consumer organizations. The considerations focus in particular on the analysis of legislation in this area. The article synthesizes selected acts of international and national law in the field of the operation of consumer organizations. The article presents the evolution of the basic laws and acts of a lower level in the context of the freedom of association in consumer organizations. The essence and idea of associations having the character of associations was also indicated. The last part of the article serves as a conclusion and includes considerations on the real role of consumer organizations and the need to implement the constitutional right of freedom of asso

On the (un)constitutionality of personal search carried out by the Police

 The text is an analysis of the regulation concerning the personal search carried out by the Police from the perspective of constitutional limitation upon the exercise of freedoms and rights. The judgment of the Constitutional Tribunal led to changes in the Police Act. However, they extended the scope of this power. The article indicates the elements of this regulation which determine its non-compliance with the constitutional conditions for limitation upon the exercise of individual rights and freedoms.

Relation between the concepts of “liberal profession” and “profession of public trust” referred to in art. 17 par. 1 of the Polish Constitution. Part II

 “Profession of public trust” through the provision of art. 17 of the Constitution became a constitutional institution, but not legally defined. Meanwhile, determining the meaning of this concept is very important for several reasons. First of all, some legal effects are associated with assigning a particular profession to this group such as granting special rights and obligations to persons performing such a profession. Second, the lack of the definition of this concept generates problems in the lability of its meaning. Finally, the term is erroneously used interchangeably with the concept of ‘liberal profession’. Therefore, it is necessary to approximate the understanding of this concept formulated in legal literature and case law.

Authorization to adjudicate by assessors in criminal matters. Comments on the decision of the Supreme Court of May 26, 2020 I KZP 14/19

The article concerns the issue of restoring the institution of a judicial assessor in the Polish legal order, after the judgment of the Constitutional Tribunal of 2007 in which it declared unconstitutionality of this institution. In 2015, however, the legislator restored the institution of an assessor, introducing significant changes in this respect in 2018. In relation to this solution, doubts were raised as to the possibility of adjudication by an assessor, also in the context of the Supreme Court’s jurisprudence. The aim of the article is to present this institution and dispel doubts about the possibility of adjudication

Language problems of the European Union. Between the idealism of assumptions, utilitarian solutions, and the need for communicative law. Part II

This article is the second part of the considerations regarding language issues in the constitutional aspect with reference to the territory of the Republic of Poland and the European Union. The issues of linguistic interpretation in the practice of the European Court of Justice, as well as issues relating to language interpretation in the proceedings before the Court of Justice of the EU, draw attention to the content of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union and the consequences thereof. The problem of the status of semi-official (additional) languages has been pointed out. The author analyses normative acts referring to this issue and the language problems that occure in the proceedings before the Court of Justice of the European Union. The summary points out the financial aspect resulting from the fact that Europe does not have a language which the entire population of the Union would identify with, stressing the difficulties that will arise after the expected departure from the European Union by the United Kingdom.

Role of the Peruvian Constitutional Tribunal in solving the constitutional crisis of 2017–2020

The Constitutional Tribunal in Peru is a special institution in the constitutional system that, after the resignation of President Pedro Pablo Kuczynski in 2018, has become the arena of the struggle for influence between the parliament and the president. What was the role of the Tribunal in solving the political crisis of 2017–2020 and what is the impact of these relations on shaping the rule of law standards? In conclusion, it should be noted that the organization and principles of functioning of the institution of the Constitutional Tribunal goes beyond the traditional division into executive, legislative and judicial power, granting it extensive powers, however, making it vulnerable to corruption generating mechanisms of power

Model of relations between the state and religious organizations in Ukraine – legal aspect

The purpose of the publication is to characterize the model of relations between the state and religious organizations in Ukraine. After Ukraine gained independence in 1991, it was necessary to regulate issues related to the functioning of religious organizations in accordance with democratic standards. The model of separation adopted in the Constitution of Ukraine is the culmination of political changes. However, the Constitution of Ukraine provides for guarantees of freedom of conscience and religion, based on international standards arising from the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 1966 and the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of 1950. Pursuant to Article 35 of the Constitution of Ukraine, everyone has the right to ideological freedom and to choose a religion. This right includes: freedom to profess any religion or not profess religion, freely cultivate religious or ritual cults individually or collectively, and conduct religious activities. This right may be restricted only if it is in the interest of protecting public order, health and morality of the population, or protecting the rights and freedoms of others. It should be noted that the law in question correlates with the constitutional provisions regarding the “ideological diversity” of social life in Ukraine, where the state cannot make any ideology compulsory – Art. 15 of the Constitution. Nevertheless, there is traditionally a significant influence of religious institutions on social relations, political events, which is explained by the historical significance of churches and religious organizations in the life of Slavic peoples and the specificity of the national mentality, the main component of which is religious spirituality. The author in this publication analyzes the legal system. The article also discusses selected problems related to the practical application of legal provisions.

Social dimension of private property in the context of art. 14 of Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany

The article is an attempt to prove that the regulation of private property provided for in art.14 of German constitution refers to the rights and obligations of both citizens and state authorities. First, it safeguards the protection of private property. Second, it provides duties, primarily, of the owner and legislator. The owner should then use his or her private property respecting the common good at the same time. The legislator should define the private property while creating the just social order. The social dimension of private property analyzed in the article proves that it forms an attempt to find the right balance between the rights of individuals and the rights of community. The article analyzes adequate views of German scholars, but also the judgements of Federal Constitutional Court and Federal Court of Justice. The influence of art. 14 on the legal order is presented on the example of chosen legal norms.

Age discrimination in the light of selected judgments of the Court of Justice of the European Union

The article presents the evolution of anti-discrimination law of the European Union in the context of counteracting age discrimination, as well as it analyzes selected judgments of the Court of Justice of the European Union regarding the prohibition of discrimination in this area. The main areas of jurisprudence on age discrimination include, inter alia, issues related to pension systems in individual Member States, restrictions on the performance of a given profession after reaching a certain age, but also age restrictions applied in recruiting employees or determining the amount of remuneration of employees only on the basis of their age.

Legal status of judges in Finland. Theoretical and legal analysis

The legal status of judges, based on ensuring their autonomic and independent functioning, is a fundamental attribute of the system of justice, a prerequisite and a guarantee of the implementation of the principle of a democratic legal state. It is not different in the Finnish constitutional system. The aim of this study is to analyze the legal status of judges in Finland. The subject of the analysis covers the examination of the qualifications required from candidates for the post of a judge, the procedures for their appointment and dismissal, and the attributes of the realization of their autonomic and independent status. The legal analysis has been conducted on the grounds of the provisions of the Basic Law of 1999 regarding the status of judges and the provisions of the relevant laws on courts and the appointment of judges. This study allowed to conclude that the above guarantees enable the objective and impartial functioning of the judiciary in Finland in accordance with the principle of a democratic state ruled by law, as in terms of adjudication courts are fully autonomic and independent and are not subject to state control, while court judgments are the last resort guaranteeing parties respect for their rights in relations with the state.

Public authorities competent in cyberspace protection in selected cybersecurity strategies

A consistent cybersecurity system is a guarantee of network security. The government and its subordinate bodies play a key role in shaping, organizing, managing and monitoring it. Based on constitutional powers and applicable law, public authorities of individual countries, i.e. the USA, France and Germany, influence the shape of politics by creating strategic action plans in the field of cybersecurity

Position of the Ombudsman of Patient’s Rights in the Polish legal system

The article deals with issues related to the legal and systemic position of the patient ombudsman, as well as his tasks and competences. The author concludes that the ombudsman is not a typical ombudsman and that his activity is strictly subordinate to the executive, which is a denial of independence characteristic of a potential ombudsman. The article uses several research methods, such as system analysis and institutional analysis. The comparative, historical and observational methods were used subordinately. The research techniques used in the article include the analysis of the content of legal acts, the analysis of the texts of specialist studies, and the analysis of other documents.

Constitutional and criminal aspects of the demoralisation of young people on the example of happy slapping

The concept of demoralisation has always been present among young people. One of the forms of today’s demoralisation is the so-called happy slappinng, a phenomenon involving filming people in a humiliating situation, and then publishing the recorded material on the Internet. These actions combine traditional violence with virtual violence. The rights of the individual are protected both at the international and national levels. The provisions of the constitution and other laws introduce standards for the protection of an individual against interference by third parties. Current legal regulations do not keep up with this form of crime. Therefore, the provisions of the Penal Code should be amended and activities such as happy slapping ought to be penalised as a separate type of a crime. This would enable efficient proceedings in such cases and provide more effective protection for the victims.

Court clerk jurisdiction to issue an order for payment in civil proceedings in the light of the constitutional principle of the judicial administration of justice

The subject of this article is to analyse the constitutionality of the court referendary’s jurisdiction to issue an order por payment in civil proceedings. While the ordinary legislator is entitled to extend the competences of this body, it cannot, in this respect, infringe art. 175 of the Polish Constitution, according to which justice is administered only by courts. Considerations presented in this study first of all address the issue of whether issuing of an order for payment in each of the four separate civil procedures can be regarded as administration of justice. Resolving this issue seems to be of key importance with regard to the subject of this paper, as art. 175 of the Polish Constitution suggests that the permissible scope of competences of court referendaries should end where the administration of justice begins. The assumption that issuing an order for payment falls within the sphere of administering justice moves the considerations to the compliance of entrusting this competence to court referendaries with art. 175 of the Polish Constitution. The analysis carried out in this respect includes an attempt to resolve whether it can be considered compliant with the principle of the judicial administration of justice.

Senate of the interwar period in Republic of Poland and Czechoslovakia

The article is an attempt to compare the constitutional position of the second chambers of parliament in the interwar period in Poland and Czechoslovakia. It was the time of shaping the post-war order. The article shows differences and similarities between the two systems in regard to Senates, bearing in mind the similar political situation at that time, as well as the similarity of drawing patterns from the constitutional order of the Third French Republic.

Non-electoral tasks of the National Electoral Commission

Apart from its main functions connected with preparing and holding elections, the National Electoral Commission has to fulfill many other tasks entrusted to it both by the Election Code and by many other acts. Therefore, we can divide these tasks into two categories: the tasks of an electoral nature and the tasks of a non-electoral nature. The article presents the tasks carried out by the National Electoral Commission in the non-electoral sphere. Among them there are also particularly significant issues connected with financing the politics, both in terms of considering the reports of political parties and electoral committees. The wide scope of tasks performed by the National Electoral Commission, including those that have a direct impact on the shaping of Polish democratic system substantiate the thesis about the necessity of constitutionalization of the National Electoral Commission.

The problem of the grounds and procedure for rejecting the financial statements of the election committee

Financial statement is an important element in checking the compliant financing of an election campaign. According to the Election Code, the financial representative of the election committee should submit to the election body to which the election committee previously submitted a notification of its establishment, a financial report on the committee’s revenues, expenses and liabilities, including bank loans obtained and loans conditions. In this situation, the financial statement may be submitted to the National Electoral Commission as well as to other election bodies. However, if the report was rejected by the election commissioner, the financial representative may appeal against such decision to the District Court. Judicial practice shows that it was disputed whether a complaint could be brought in a situation where the report was accepted, but at the same time the identified shortcomings were identified. The content of the obligatory statutory grounds for rejecting the report was also questioned.

Competitive advantage of political parties financed by the state budget in Poland

The article concerns the principles of financing of political parties in Poland. The thesis about creating a competitive advantage of the parties financed from the state budget over other parties was verified. An analysis of the amount of subsidies and other funds paid to eligible political parties was carried out. Particular attention was paid to the domination of funds from the budget over other sources of finance of the largest political parties. In conclusion, it was proposed to significantly limit the statutory subsidy and, as a consequence, replace it with voluntary taxation of citizens.

Is Polish Constitution adjusted to the times of crisis? Selected problems and de lege ferenda propositions

The subject of this article is the question whether the Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 1997 provides sufficient guarantees for the continuity of government and cooperation of public authorities in the event of sudden threats such as war, rebellion, natural disaster or terrorist attack. The analysis shows that the Constitution of the Republic of Poland is prepared for standard emergency situations, but does not contain procedures in the event of the worst-case scenarios: necessity of state of emergency during electoral campaign; failure to gather a minimum quorum of 230 deputies for the needs of a session of the parliament; the death of top politicians in the state.

The political consequences of changing the election formula and restrictions on standing for elections – the case of the elections to councils of large and medium-sized cities in the Lower Silesian Voivodship in 2014 and 2018

The main aim of the article is to analyze the relationship between the structure of political rivalry and the solutions adopted under the amendment to the Electoral Code of 2018. The author uses several research methods (system analysis, content analysis, comparative analysis, indexing methods) in order to test the hypothesis according to which the change in the structure of political rivalry in the large and medium-sized cities in the Lower Silesia Voivoideship observed in 2018 is a consequence of: (1) the change in the current election formula, i.e. the introduction of a proportional electoral system in cities that are not cities with poviat rights, and (2) restrictions related to standing for election to legislative authority. The multifactorial analysis of the results of local government elections illustrates the actual scope of changes in the structure of political rivalry.

Citizen’s right to care during their stay abroad – constitutional and EU regulations

The article concerns the legal aspects of care provided to a citizen during a stay abroad in the constitutional and EU dimension. Both the provisions of the Polish Constitution and the provisions of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union guarantee citizens protection during their stay abroad. The aim of the publication is to analyze who the assistance is addressed to, in what situations and by what entities the assistance is or can be provided. The article compares the internal law and EU regulations. The aim of the considerations was to indicate the similarities and differences in the scope of assistance offered under the constitutional and EU care. The thesis that consular functions need to be constantly evolved should be defended due to the dynamically changing of the reality, like intensified migratory movements of citizens.

The right of the commune to associate in the light of applicable legal solutions

The purpose of this study is to analyze the constitutional legal regulation of the right of the commune to associate in the light of the applicable legal system. The starting point is to present the constitutional legal basis of the association. Next, accession to international associations by local government units was discussed. The next considerations concern international cooperation under European Union law. The last part of the work is an analysis of municipal associations in the light of the act on municipal self-government.

The problem of discrepancies in the jurisprudence of the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court regarding the transcription of a foreign birth certificates of a children of same-sex couples in the light of the Constitution of the Republic od Poland of 2nd April 1997

In recent years, refusal to transcribe birth certificates of children of same-sex couples has increasingly become the subject of decisions of the Supreme Administrative Court and the Supreme Court. This extremely current and at the same time complicated legal problem has been subjected in this study to a multifaceted study. The interpretation of the provisions regulating the issue of birth certificates allowed to define their place in the process of creating the child`s identity. On the other hand, the analysis of the case law made in the second part of the article made it possible to indicate specific consequences of the refusal to transfer foreign birth certificate to the national register of marital status. The most important and at the same time the most extensive part of the considerations is, however, the reference of the legal effects of the adopted solutions to the basic constitutional and international principles and values. Such a broad approach to the problem provided the basis for formulating final conclusions as to the rightness of the actions taken by the Polish state to protect the domestic legal order.

The position of the constitutions of the Member States of the European Union – a few remarks against the background of current conditions and the relationship of the Court of Justice of the European Union with national courts

The subject of the study is to demonstrate that the possibilities and prospects of federalizing the European Union are questionable in the context of current facts – pandemia, economic crisis, the internal situation of economically, socially and culturally diverse member states, and as a consequence of a significant legal event – the judgment of the Federal Constitutional Court of the Federal Republic of Germany of May 5, 2020. With the above judgment, the German Constitutional Court refused to recognize the binding force in Germany of the judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union. This may affect the relations of the CJEU with the constitutional courts of the states, including the Polish Constitutional Tribunal, as the vast majority of them recognize the primacy of national constitutions.

The effects of the limited judgments of the Constitutional Court for the incidental decisions in criminal proceedings. Analysis on the basis of the jugment of the Constitutional Court given on 16 July 2018 (case No. K 12/15)

This article discusses the effects of the limited judgments of the Constitutional Court in Poland declaring that the legal provisions not providing for an appeal against the incidental decision issued in criminal proceedings are not in conformity with the Polish Constitution. The analysis is held on the basis of the limited judgment of the Constitutional Court given on 16 July 2018, case No. K 12/15. It is not clear whether the limited judgment could be a basis to apply for a leave to lodge interlocutory appeal in the criminal proceedings. Moreover, it should be clarify whether the limited judgment could be a basis of reopening the incidental proceedings. The author presents the thesis that, firstly, the limited judgment of the Constitutional Court shall be the basis to apply for a leave to lodge interlocutory appeal against the incidental decision and, secondly, the limited judgment should be the basis to reopen the incidental proceedings.

Scientific plagiarism and punishable plagiarism – de lege lata considerations from the perspective of the constitutional requirement of specific features of the type of a prohibited act

Scientific work, as a “form of expression” of a scientific finding, is the result of a creative, but relatively standardized work of the scientist. This “form of expression” is protected under copyright law. Nevertheless, in the scientific community it happens that this is used not in accordance with the principle of fire use, i.e. fair borrowing. On this basis, the phenomenon of scientific plagiarism is born. However, there is a serious difficulty in distinguishing between these scientific plagiarisms, which can be understood as scientific misconduct (scientific fraud), from punishable ones under Art. 115 paragraph 1 of the Act on copyright and related rights. Not all scientific plagiarism is punishable plagiarism under this Article. Nevertheless, the current formula of the statutory hallmarks of this act is so elastic that it becomes a problem to distinguish the protected elements of a scientific work from those elements which are not protected from the point of view of copyright as well as criminal law. In turn, such a state of affairs may contribute to the weakening of the principle of nullum crimen sine lege certa and stricta, and thus to interference with the freedom of scientific activity under Art. 73 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland.

The institution of the child’s hearing in the light of the Polish Constitution (selected issues)

The subject of this article is the analysis of the institution of the child hearing provided for in Art. 72 (3) of the Polish Constitution. The right of a child to be heard is one of the fundamental rights of a child and is part of child’s right to protection in legal proceedings concerning it. The publication presents the concept of a child itself, which is defined in various ways due to the lack of one universal, system-wide definition of a child, and also presents an example catalog of matters falling under the constitutional premise – “establishing children’s rights”. The group of entities obliged to hear a child, such as generally accepted public authorities and persons responsible for the child, were also introduced. The introduction of the above-mentioned concepts made it possible to assume that the institution of hearing the child is necessary to ensure the fundamental rights of the child and as an element of its right to protection in legal proceedings concerning it.

Constitutional aspects of cassation judgment in the Polish criminal trial

The article shows how the cassation appeal model determines the exercise of the right to a fair trial. The aim was to examine the constitutionality of solutions concerning retrial not considered to a greater extent in the science of the criminal process. The formal and dogmatic method was used in the research. The Constitution of the Republic of Poland does not indicate what the model of the criminal trial is. It does not explicitly contain an order or a prohibition to repeal judgments and refer the case for reconsideration. The legislator, while shaping the right to revoke judgments, including legally binding ones, and to refer the case for reconsideration, must, however, particularly carefully balance all the conflicting values. It must particularly take into account the importance of hearing a case without undue delay and the stability of final court decisions as constitutional values.

Institution of a constitutional complaint in Ukraine (comments on the background of Polish regulations and practice)

The introduction of Institute of Constitutional Complaint in Ukraine for the purpose of comparing its efficient functioning mainly in Republic of Poland has been researched in the article. The model of constitutional complaint in Ukraine has been analyzed. The attention is paid to problematic (debating) issues of authorities of body of constitutional jurisdiction in Ukraine as to effective and professional consideration of constitutional complaints.

Changes in the Structure of the Central Public Administration in the Light of the Act on the National Cybersecurity System of 2018

The national security of Poland in the 21 st century is strongly influenced by the processes taking place in the contemporary global security environment. They are characterized by high dynamics and complexity of changes as well as the occurrence of asymmetrical threats, among which the most dangerous are threats in cyberspace. The functioning of the state and the implementation of their constitutional obligations are increasingly dependent on the development of modern technologies, the information society and the smooth functioning of cyberspace, which is largely dependent on the security of the ICT infrastructure enabling the use of cyberspace, information resources and services accumulated therein. thanks to it they function. Rapid progress in the field of digital technologies necessitates the effective use of the latest technologies while creating the opportunity for the Polish state to leave the role of only the user and join the group of countries with an effectively functioning digital economy, providing solutions and co-creating international standards. To meet these expectations, the President of the Republic of Poland signed the Act on the national cybersecurity system on 1 August 2018, implementing the Directive of the European Parliament and the Council (EU) into the Polish legal order regarding measures for a high common level of security of network and information systems in the territory of Union (Directive 2016/1148) – (the so-called NIS Directive).

Institutional protection of rights to health benefits for adult and elderly people in terminal states of illnesses

Ageing of the Polish society entails the importance of securing caring and medicinal services of the growing population of seniors and people in terminal states of illnesses. The aim of this article is to assess legal framework concerning institutional protection of rights of people in terminal states of illnesses, in the context of the scale of terminal states of illnesses and the need for services aimed at terminally ill and their families.

The right to social assistance benefits in the light of the Polish Constitution

This article discusses the right to social assistance benefits in the light of the Polish Constitution. Its purpose is to present the principles and legal norms directly related to this law. On the basis of the material contained therein, it can reasonably be assumed that among the values and norms specified in the Constitution and relating to the sphere of human social rights, human dignity deserves special attention, as well as the principle of subsidiarity, which are related to the issues of social assistance.

Admissibility of transcription of birth certificate of a samesex parents’ child – remarks within the context of the most recent case-law of the Supreme Administrative Court

This paper is an attempt to critically analyze the jurisprudence of Poland’s Supreme Administrative Court on transcription of a foreign birth certificate of a child of same-sex parents and it aims to present a decisive scientific position on this major issue. The subject being discussed, requires the adoption of a systemic and functional perspective during the scrupulous exegesis of the legal text and a particular consideration should be given to the inclusion of the constitutional norms in the process of examining the admissibility of this type of transcription. Therefore, this article comprises dogmatic references to the constitutional concept of family, parenthood and the scope of legal protection guaranteed by the relevant normative contents (including those firmly axiologised), as well as a commentary on selected provisions from a sub-constitutional level. A comprehensive analysis of the issue of transcription of the present category of birth certificates, taking into account the various normative levels, has led to the conclusion that the Supreme Administrative Courts’ thesis – which is boiled down to the recognition that there is a basic principle (that underpin the operation of polish legal system) which absolutely precludes transcription of a foreign birth certificate where same-sex people are entered as childs’ parents – does not deserve approval. Contrary to the presented view of jurisprudence, such a ban – for various reasons mentioned in the text – cannot be derived from the Polish law system.

On the Eve of the Birth of the Modern Doctrine of the Legal State? The Attitude of Polish Liberals to the Idea of the Rule of Law at the Beginning of the 19th Century

The article analyzes the problem of the attitude towards the idea of the rule of law of representatives of the Polish elite at the beginning of the 19th century. The author presents the development of the idea of the rule of law in the introduction. He verifies the thesis that the ideological basis for the concept of the rule of law was the Enlightenment thought on the basis of which the liberal doctrine developed. He used it to seek an answer to the question about the characteristics of the model of government established by the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland of 1815. The author attempted to prove that, since the Kingdom (existing until 1831) with one of the most liberal constitutions in the first half of the 19th century was in force, then this act met all the conditions required for the establishment of the rule of law according to the standards adopted in that century. These considerations conclude with remarks on the further evolution of Polish liberal thought in the 1820s. It began to differ from the liberal assumptions on which the German Rechtstaat doctrine was built. Paradoxically, Rechtstaat concept had much more in common to Polish liberalism in the earlier (proto-liberal) stage of its development in the times of the Duchy of Warsaw (1807–1815) than of the Kingdom of Poland (1815–1831).

Are there Polish Traditions of the Rule of Law? Prolegomena for Research

The paper is a summary of a scientific seminar devoted to the problem of the Polish acquis concerning the concept of the Rule of Law and an introduction to in-depth research on this subject. The initial answer to the research question whether there is Polish achievements in the described field is positive. It is a centuries-old and relatively rich achievement. The answer to the question about the existence of the Polish tradition of the Rule of law, understood as continuity, is negative. Despite making more and more (partially understandable) attempts to prove this continuity and the existence of at least a partial continuation of the political system between the so called First, Second and Third Polish Republics, this continuity is only illusory and in fact has been broken several times. One can speak of a short-term continuity only within successive epochs in Polish history.

„Even the same Ones, who are Established to be Protectors of Law, they Ought to be Their First Preservers”. On the Rule of Law in the Debate and Reform work of Polish Great Sejm (1788–1792)

Although the theoretical assumptions of the concept of the rule of law have been developed in the continental tradition only in the 19th century, its systemic elements have their roots deep in history. In this contribution, the author analyses selected examples from the field of legislation and legal culture of the Great Sejm era (1788–1792). She focuses in particular on the problems of articulation and functioning of the supremacy of the constitution in the legal order and the innovative shaping of the responsibilities of key state authorities. These issues notably seem to reflect the suspension between the domestic heritage and the modernity of constitutionalism. At the same time, both cases prove that the ratio legis of these solutions was primarily of a practical, not conceptual nature.

The presented article is devoted to using present-day legal terminology in scientific research on pre-modern and pre-constitutional states’ legal systems. The main focus of analysis is the rule of law principle existence between the 16th and 18th centuries in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The author tries to establish whether this is even justified to use the modern idea of the rule of law to describe the Polish-Lithuanian pre-partitions political system? And, if so, how technically do that to avoid presentism? The author tries to formulate a set of features concerned with the rule of law principle applicable to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He also tries to determine the set of conditions necessary for the rule of law principle to blossom in pre-modern reality fully

“May the Polish Sejm be Tranquil, may the Polish Sejm be Quiet”. Building and Phasing out the Legal State in the Second Polish Republic

The inter-war period played the key role in the process of realizing the idea of the legal state in Poland. It brought the uninhibited opportunity to establish a new the form of government based on solid democratic standards and the rule of law for the first time since the country had lost its independence in the late 18th century. It was expressed in the legal instruments of the March Constitution of 1921. Practical enforcement of the legal state concept in the Second Polish Republic was far from ideal though. It resulted from various political, social, economic and international challenges. The March Constitution, not always clearly worded, was subject to widespread criticism and its cumbersome regulations were ignored. Moving gradually away from the rule of law, marked by the Sanacja elites becoming more authoritarian after 1926, was expressed on three levels: creating law, including subsequent constitutional regulations, it’s interpretations and enforcement. Gradual transformation of the parliamentary-cabinet system of the March Constitution into authoritarian state was the result of these processes. The article attempts to analyze the inter-war experience from the point of view of growing degradation of the rule of law and the reasons for its instability in the Second Polish Republic.

The Territorial Self-Government and the Division of State Powers under the Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 1997

Territorial self-government is an institution deeply entrenched in the fabric of civil society. As a result, the state should guarantee that institution’s right to evolve naturally, following the development of and attainment of successive maturity stages by Polish civil society. Consequently, according to the constitution-maker’s intentions, the constitutional regime of territorial self-government should not be an inhibitive factor for the natural processes accompanying the civil society’s development within self-governing communities, but it should allow for the ossification of such processes in territorial self-government laws. In this paper, the possibility of implementing the above assumption and the powers of territorial self-government are considered through the prism of the principles of the division of state powers and decentralization of public authorities. The considerations lead to the conclusion that there are systemic foundations for the separation of self-government authority within the vertical division of state power.

Breach of Oath as a Reason for Dismissal of the Ombudsman by the Sejm

The purpose of this article is to determine whether, and if so to what extent, failure to comply with specific duties declared in the oath of office taken by an Ombudsman before taking office is relevant to the assessment of his responsibilities. The Sejm shall dismiss the ombudsman before the end of the period for which he was appointed if the Ombudsman has misappropriated his oath. Therefore, special attention has been paid in this study to the effects of the Ombudsman’s oath. The article examines the content of this oath and the conditions of exercising the right to dismiss the ombudsman by the Sejm. Such a decision must take into account, in particular, the independence of the ombudsman and the rule of tenure.

The Ombudsman and the Organs of Judicial Power

The author shows that, in order to protect rights and freedoms, the Ombudsman, with the help of various instruments and depending on the infringements found, undertakes actions with organs of the judiciary, on which obligations concerning the protection of human rights and other subjects have been imposed. This article reviews the forms of the Ombudsman’s relations with the Supreme Court, the Supreme Administrative Court, the Constitutional Tribunal, and common courts. Their aim is to raise the level of respect for human and civil rights. In this context the thesis of the article is as follows: in view of structural, legal and organisational defects of the state, the Ombudsman notes that new threats to human and civil rights appear, freedoms or rights granted to them are often taken away in a manner inconsistent with constitutional standards, and public authorities exceed the sphere of their powers in an expcessive manner. Allegations made in complaints against public authorities are often verified by the Ombudsman in the course of inquiries with his participation. The Ombudsman keeps his distance from these bodies, which enables him to influence them in the field of human rights protection, and above all to influence the individuals subordinate to them.

Implementation a Programmatic Norm Resulting from Article 68 para. 4 of the Constitution of Poland in the State of the COVID-19 Epidemic (general comments)

The article refers to the issue related to the implementation by public authorities of the obligation to combat epidemic diseases. The COVID-19 epidemic situation in Poland requires the state to intensify its efforts to prevent the spread of the COVID-19 infectious disease. Actions taken by public authorities are related to, inter alia with the need to restrict the freedoms and rights of the individual, which may be introduced provided that they are consistent with the requirements provided in the Constitution of Poland. The article points out the irregularities occurring in this area, taking into account the jurisprudence of the Constitutional Tribunal, and the views of the doctrine

Dilemmas of Freedom and their Legal Implications

Each legal institution begins from an idea, therefore a thought is primary in relation to the legal norm created by the legislator. This makes the analysis of this idea is significant and cannot be ignored. Freedom is one of the fundamental rights guaranteed by the contemporary constitutionalism. The article is an analysis of the philosophical and legal understanding of the concept of freedom and the ways of its transfer to the law. The author claims that the concept of freedom is a vague concept for a European lawyer, on the foundation of which it is difficult to build a legal system. On the one hand, this concept seems familiar and it is difficult to directly deny it, but its definition, and even more so, the adoption of the consequences associated with this definition is debatable.

Civil Service in the Jurisprudence of the Constitutional Tribunal

The civil service (c.s.) is a key element of any nation of law. As an institution responsible for exercising the public authority c.s. is not free from political pressure and takeover attempts for the purposes of the party. Polish experience in the creation of a politically neutral c.s. has not been impressive. The first regulation was created during the interwar period. After the World War II, the idea of an independent and professional c.s. was gradually dismantled to be completely abandoned in 1974. After the collapse of PRL, until 1996, there were several unsuccessful attempts to revive c.s. In that year the parliament adopted a basis for the c.s. system but even that attempt was subsequently revised in upcoming years by further changes (three new acts of law). Moreover, it has to be pointed out that during those years the actions of decision-makers concerning the c.s. have been the subject of jurisprudence by the Constitutional Tribunal. The rulings issued by the Tribunal have shaped the operational conditions which are important for c.s. and have developed an interpretation of the constitutional axioms of that institution. Analysis of key sentences of the Constitutional Court is the subject of this paper.

Constitutive and Conventional Provenance of Law to Fair Consideration of Case (Right to a Fair Trial)

The text is devoted to the problem of the right to a fair trial, which the Polish legislator recognizes as the one of the most important civil rights and liberties. The constitutive and conventional lineage of this right was indicated. It is noted in the text that this right can only be excercised in a state that recognizes the tripartite division of power as well as in situation in which common judiciary is based on four fundamental foundations such as jurisdiction to hear a case of a given type, impartiality, independent in legal, organisational and decision-making terms.

The Right to a Healthy Environment as a Constitutionally Guaranteed Subjective Right

Environmental protection and the protection of the individual are closely related. This relationship has many aspects, which are subject to more and more analysis in the literature. The author is of the opinion that the right to a healthy environment should be treated as one of the individual human rights. The purpose of this article is to draw attention to the necessity to sanction the right to a healthy environment in the Polish Constitution. For this purpose, the provisions of the constitution were analyzed, and the constitutional practice of european countries and international practice were presented.

Legislative Aspects of the NRAs’ Status in the Infrastucture Sectors

Ownership and structural changes in the infrastructural sectors of the Polish economy in the last three decades, while maintaining the public interest (art. 22 of the Constitution) and the implementation of the “social” market economy principle (art. 20) of the state’s influence on these sectors, justify the need for a legal and constitutional reflection on the status of activities of regulatory bodies in these sectors. The accession to the European Union has placed said activities on the path of the Union’s integration policies, aimed at “horizontal” integration of the infra-structural sectors of the EU member states. A typical and most commonly used legal tool for implementing EU integration undertakings are sectoral directives of the European Parliament and the Council. The Polish regulatory authorities with their postulated attributes of independence, professionalism and objectivity, have found themselves in the field where two routes of the addressed impacts cross: the EU sectoral integration route and the route of implementation of national policy toward infrastructure sectors (steaming from the Polish Council of Ministers and from relevant ministries). The author, identifying the elements of such use, points out the constitutional and legal uncertainties (even: dilemmas) in regard to the relationship between the Council of Ministers (and the Prime Minister)/relevant ministries and the state sectoral regulatory bodies.

The One-in, One-out Principle as the Limit of Legislative Interference into the Sphere of Freedom of Economic Activity

The article deals with the issue of the limit of legislative interference in the sphere of freedom of economic activity, defined by the one-in, one-out principle, introduced at the turn of 2010 and 2011 in Great Britain, in relation to the issue of restricting the freedom of economic activity in the light of art. 22 and art. 31 s. 3 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 2 April 1997.

The Implementation of the Constitutional Right to Education in Educational Practice. An Educator’s Perspective

The political, economic and social changes that took place in Poland after 1989 meant that one of the first areas of social life that was subject to thorough legal changes was the education system, changes which, as practice proves, are of a continuous nature. The aim of the article is an attempt to evaluate the implementation of the constitutional right to education (Art. 70) and related rights (Art. 53, paragraph 3 and Art. 73) in the context of the organization and functioning of the Polish education system. This is the view of a pedagogue who has been analyzing the legislative solutions of subsequent authorities of the Ministry of Education in the context of everyday educational practice for many years, with particular emphasis on the effects of the introduced formal and legal solutions.

Russia’s Constitutional Reform of 2020

In 2020 took place the most serious constitutional reform in the Russian Federation. The amendments result in the strengthening of the President in the political system, enable V. Putin to maintain power until 2034 and introduce some other significant changes. The aim of the following paper is to present the circumstances of the reform, the contents of the amendments, and their overall summary. Particular attention was paid to the following issues: relations among main institutions of state power, the place of international law in the sources of Russia’s law and other amendments related to constitutional identity and axiology. The reform results in strengthening the position of the President, even though still within the semi-presidential model of the political system, the diminished role of the Parliament, local self-government and deprivation of the autonomy of the judiciary.

The Position of a Head of State in the Political System of the Principality of Liechtenstein

The aim of the article is to present the position of a head of state in the Principality of Liechtenstein. The Principality is one of the European monarchies, but it is distinguished from others by the fact that the position of the prince is far-reaching, by no means limited only to representatives functions. The prince’s activity to internal and external politics is rooted in the constitution in force since 1921 and was presented in the article. The position of the head of state also results from historical and social conditions. It is salso based on non-constitutional solutions. Princerly prerogatives are broad. Although attempts were made to limit them, such proposals were rejected in a referendum. Additionally, during the voting in 2003, the ruler’s powers were further extended.

The Indian Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act 2010 as a Proposal for Legal Solutions Regarding the Financing of Entities Operating within the Country with a Foreign Contribution

The article presents the legal order of India in the field of legislative solutions regarding the regulation of the use of foreign funds by public and private sector entities. The legal basis is the Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act 2010, with amendments in subsequent years. The purpose of the adopted normative act was to define specific rules that condition and allow for the possibility of financing entities operating within the country with foreign contributions. The assumption of the legislation was to reduce the possibility of indirect influence over the state policy, as well as to prevent actions harmful to the national interest with its core values, such as democracy, the rule of law, transparency of state bodies and the protection of civil rights.

Citizens’ Legislative Initiative in Italy – Legal Regulation and Practice

The Italian constitution of 1947 regulates two forms of direct democracy: people’s initiative and a referendum. According to its Art. 71 sec. 2, at least fifty thousand voters have the right to introduce legislation, a draft must be formulated in articles. Details of the procedure are laid down in Law 352/1970 “Norme sui referendum previsti in Costituzione e sull’iniziativa legislativa del popolo”. The signature collection procedure is complicated and requires the collection of many declarations and confirmations. A review of citizens’ bills submitted to the chambers of the Italian Parliament from 1996 to today shows that the number of these bills varies between twenty and thirty some in a term (several per year). Until 2020, there was no discernible trend in this respect, neither upward nor downward. A very small proportion of the citizens’ bills submitted becomes law. Therefore, it should be assessed that the right to submit citizenship bills is also treated – or perhaps even primarily – as a political tool, an instrument used to initiate discussions on socially and politically important topics.

Replacement of the President in Office under the XXVth Amendment to the US Constitution

The situation, unprecedented in the history of the United States, of launching the impeachment procedure for the second time during one term of office against a sitting president was preceded by an attempt to use another mechanism for removing a head of state from office, namely the mechanism provided for in the XXV th Amendment to the Constitution. The purpose of this article is to analyze Section 4 of the XXV th Amendment, in light of the January 2021 events that took place on Capitol Hill. The methods used during the work include: historical, dogmatic-legal and linguistic method. The conclusions support the presumed thesis that, compared to impeachment proceedings, the XXV th Amendment mechanism is a faster process that does not require indictments or Congressional proceedings. However, it requires a particularly politically difficult decision by the vice president acting in consultation with the heads of departments of the American government, fraught with potential consequences should the ousted President return to power, in view of the administration’s total dependence on the decisions of the head of state. It is these circumstances that must be considered the reasons why the provisions under consideration have not been applied in practice.

Constitutional Oversight of Government Surveillance in the United States

The aim of the article is the analysis of constitutional oversightof the government surveillance in the United States. Referring to Snowden affair and COVID-19 surveillance, the Author discusses the challenges faced by the legislative and judicial branches in pursuing control over the executive’s national security policies. Focusing on the rule of secrecy and other constitutional doctrines and privileges, he tries to explain why effective control of government surveillance is today impossible.

Ultra vires Rulings of the Court of Justice of the European Union and their Assessment in the Jurisprudence of the German Federal Constitutional Court. Aside from the Judgment of May 5, 2020

On May 5, 2020, the German Federal Constitutional Court (FCC) ruled on the legality of the public sector asset purchase program established by the European System of Central Banks (ESCB). What is particularly important, this issue was the subject of a preliminary ruling by the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), issued following an inquiry from a German court. The FCC’s decision is of particular importance in the context of plans to launch a European Reconstruction Fund to combat the effects of the coronavirus pandemic. The German court questioned the treaty bases of the decisions of the European Central Bank (ECB) on the basis of which the bonds were issued. What is particularly important, the German court emphasized not only the right, but even the obligation to examine by the constitutional courts of the EU Member States whether the activity of European institutions goes beyond the powers conferred on them in the treaties (ultra vires). The content of this decision and its extensive justification will certainly have a great impact on the functioning of the European Union.

Literature:

• Borysiak W., [w:] Konstytucja RP, Komentarz do art. 1–86, t. 1, red. M. Safjan, L. Bosek, Warszawa 2016.
• Kalisz A., Multicentryczność systemu prawa polskiego a działalność orzecznicza europejskiego trybunału sprawiedliwości i europejskiego trybunału praw człowieka, „Ruch Prawniczy, Ekonomiczny i Socjologiczny” 2007, nr 4.
• Kamarat E., Zastosowanie klauzuli porządku publicznego w sprawach dotyczących zawarcia małżeństwa – wybrane zagadnienia „Problemy Współczesnego Prawa Międzynarodowego, Europejskiego i Porównawczego” 2012, vol. X.
• Lai L., Macierzyństwo zastępcze w prawie włoskim, Warszawa 2017.
• Łętowska E., Multicentryczność współczesnego systemu prawa i jej konsekwencje, „Państwo i Prawo” 2005, nr 4.
• Łętowska E., Woleński J., Instytucjonalizacja związków partnerskich a Konstytucja RP z 1997 r., „Państwo i Prawo” 2013, nr 6.
• Majkowska-Szulc S., Tomaszewska M., [w:] Karta Praw Podstawowych Unii Europejskiej. Komentarz, red. A. Wróbel, Warszawa 2020.
• Matczak M., Summa iniuria O błędzie formalizmu w stosowaniu prawa, Warszawa 2007.
• Sośniak M., Klauzula porządku publicznego w prawie międzynarodowym prywatnym, Warszawa 1961.
• Wojewoda M., Kolizyjnoprawne aspekty rejestracji stanu cywilnego, [w:] System Prawa Prywatnego, t. 20C, red. M. Pazdan et al., Warszawa 2015.
• Wojewoda M., Transkrypcja zagranicznego dokumentu stanu cywilnego – kilka uwag na temat ewolucji konstrukcji w prawie polskim, „Metryka” 2016, nr 2.
• Zachariasiewicz M., Klauzula porządku publicznego jako instrument ochrony materialnoprawnych interesów i wartości fori, Warszawa 2018.
• Zachariasiewicz M-A., Nowa ustawa o prawie prywatnym międzynarodowym a małżeństwa i związki osób tej samej płci, „Problemy Prawa Prywatnego Międzynarodowego” 2012, t. 11.

Literature:

• Banaszak B., Immunitet parlamentarny de lege lata i de lege ferenda, „Państwo i Prawo” 1994, nr 4.
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The republican system from the perspective of the century of the March Constitution of 1921

The main purpose of this article is to show the evolution of the understanding of the republican form of government in the Republic of Poland. This analysis concerns not only the legal regulation of this constitutional principle, but also refers to changes in the views of the constitutional doctrine on the perception of the republican principle, including its components. Discrepancies in the perception of the principle of the republican form of government among researchers were and are significant, which shows that for over 100 years of an independent Polish State, these disputes are still vigorous. The aforementioned differences in the interpretation of the republican principle concern primarily the material elements of this principle, revealing the relationship between the republican system and other principles of the system, first of all the principle of the sovereignty of the people (the nation), the principle of the separation of powers and the principle defining the system of government. For this reason, it becomes necessary to decode these rules in a way that respects the republican traditions. and, consequently, in a way that allows the implementation of the values that underpin the creation of the republican system, not so much as a negation of the monarchy, but as an alternative form to it.

President of the Republic of Poland – reflections on the 100th anniversary of the institution

The author presents the historical regulation of the President in the Polish constitutional law of the period 1918–1939. He shows the evolution and specific features of the institution, from the office of the Chief of State in years 1918–1922, through the limited regulation of the President in the Constitution of 1921 and its amendment of 1926, to the original concept of the head of state in the polish Constitution of 1935. The author notes the visible, sometimes negative impact of personal conditions on the regulations contained in the constitutions of the Second Republic, as well as the importance of Polish tradition for the process of creating and the content of the currently binding Constitution of 1997.

In search of an optimal model of the Council of Ministers – a hundred years of experience

Since Poland regained independence in 1918, there have been several constitutional acts in force (constitutions and the so-called “small constitutions”). Each of them contained provisions defining the scope of government activity, its structure, the mechanisms of appointing and dismissing cabinet members, as well as the principles of accountability. The paper outlines the way in which these issues have been developing over the past 100 years and to what extent the current solutions constitute the continuation of the solutions of the Constitution of 17 March 1921.

Everything has already been done, i.e. the heritage of the Polish parliamentarism of the 20th century

The Article is an attempt to evaluate the experiences of Polish parliamentarism in the twentieth century. The author analyzes Polish constitutional regulations and parliamentary practice, with a particular focus on the solutions adopted in the years 1919–1935, as well the impact of these regulations on the evolution of Polish parliamentarism after the Second World War, also taking into account the current political experiences. The analysis leads the author to the conclusion, that the contemporary defects of the system of parliamentary government are to a large extent the result of the historical experiences of Polish parliamentarism.

Functioning of the parliamentary opposition during the period of the Constitution of 1921 and 1997 – selected issues

This article is a jubilee text, intended to celebrate the centenary of the adoption and entry into force of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 1921. The author discusses the issues of the functioning of the parliamentary opposition in two historical periods of the 2nd and 3rd Republic of Poland, analyzing legal regulations and political mechanisms. Due to the limited volume framework of this study, this analysis has been limited to some issues only. Their selection was primarily determined by the similarities in the sphere of normative and political phenomena that can be noticed in both epochs. Hence, the article includes topics related to: the legal basis and the normative concept of the functioning of the parliamentary opposition, the impact of the parliamentary opposition on the appointment of positions in the internal organizational apparatus of the Sejm, relations between the parliamentary opposition and the Marshal of the Sejm, the levels of rivalry and cooperation between the parliamentary opposition and the ruling camp. The author’s argument leads to a bitter reflection that the existing parliamentary system has still not freed itself from the ballast of the past and is far from a system adhering to the developed standards of protection of the rights of the opposition that exist in modern countries.

100 years of defining the Polish model of “separation” of the judiciary – what we had, what we have and what we might want to have

The subject of the study is an analysis of over a hundred years of practice defining the role and political position of courts in Poland. The verification will be subject to compliance in the practice of exercising power not only with constitutional provisions (or indicating the reasons and consequences of their omission), but also with other regulations that accompany the creation and application of specific legal solutions in the context of guaranteeing the independence of the judiciary. At the same time, the assessment of the adopted solutions in terms of respect for the standards developed by international bodies for the protection of individual freedoms and rights and EU bodies was taken into account.

Freedoms and rights of the individual in the hundredyear perspective of Polish constitutionalism

The hundredth anniversary of the adoption of the March Constitution provides an opportunity to trace the constitutional regulations regarding the freedoms and rights of an individual in the time perspective of the age of Polish constitutionalism. The study undertook the procedure of presenting the evolution of catalogs of freedoms and rights of an individual proper to successive Polish constitutional regulations, taking into account the issue of guarantees of these freedoms and rights and the implementation of European tools in this field. The author proves the thesis about the fundamental lack of continuity of the solutions in the field of individual freedom and rights contained in the March Constitution in the 100-year perspective of Polish constitutionalism. He also points out that the history of shaping the constitutional status of an individual in republican Poland is characterized by a systemic and conceptual discontinuity.

Territorial self-government as a pillar of the democratic state – reflections on the idea of local self-government in the light of the self-governing traditions of the Second Republic of Poland

Territorial self-government has been widely analyzed in Polish literature of the interwar period. At that time, its three theories were formulated: naturalistic, state and political. The first one contrasted the self-government with the state, stressing that municipality is historically older than the latter and, as a result, independent; it is the state that derives its powers from the municipality, and not conversely. The second theory advanced a thesis that state power is exercised by state authorities, including through local communities with a separate legal status. Self-governance was thus to be expressed in the idea of decentralizing public authority. Although it identified self-government with state administration, the third theory demanded that self-governmental powers be exercised by independent officials, regarding their independence as a guarantee of effective exercise of the powers attributed to self-government. Investigations made at that time into the essence, nature, and form of self-government remained valid until the present day, determining democratic values as the basis for territorial self-government’s status in the current Constitution of Poland.

Considerations on the introduction of the constitutional control of the law in the era of the March Constitution – reconstruction of the discourse

The subject of the article is the reconstruction and explanation of the considerations on the failure to introduce the constitutional control of the law in the era of the March Constitution. It is argued that this was an issue noticeable by participants in legal and political relations, which was repeated during the period when it was in force, in particular after 1926 – due to the progressive abuse of the law and the fascization of political relations. Representatives of the doctrine of constitutional law are assigned a special role in promoting the importance of the control of the law for the process of building the rule of law. In this context the thesis of the article is as follows: the attitude to the control of the constitutionality of the law was not politically indifferent. It is argued that it was primarily the right-wing formations that opted for it, while the left-wing formations were against it.

Towards the improvement of laws – a few remarks on institutional solutions in the 100th anniversary of the adoption of the March Constitution

The aim of the study is an attempt to recall, in the 100th anniversary of the adoption of the Constitution of March 17, 1921, institutions serving the improvement of legislation. These included, in different scales and conditions, the Codification Committee, the Senate, and the Legal Council. The hundredth anniversary of the enactment of the March Constitution invites us to reflect on these institutions. Many papers by the late professor Jacek Czajowski dealt with the institutions established on its basis; they concerned the organization and functioning of the Senate as a “chamber of reflection and consideration” in particular. In the study dedicated to his memory, we make reference to these papers. The discussed institutional solutions are important not only from a historical point of view, but also from the perspective of optimization of the created law.

Foreign policy of the Republic of Poland. Considerations in the context of the March constitution and the constitution of 1997

The aim of the study is to analyze the constitutional solutions concerning the conduct of foreign policy by the Republic of Poland. The areas of consideration will include solutions that functioned under the rule of the March constitution, as well as solutions that were enshrined in the binding constitution of 1997. The analysis of the current solutions will also include issues related to European policy. The aim of the article is to present and compare the solutions contained in the March constitution and the constitution of 1997. The solutions functioning under each of the analyzed constitutions assume the primacy of one of the executive authorities in the field of conducting the state’s foreign policy. The analysis of individual solutions in this respect leads to the conclusion that the burden of conducting foreign policy by the president under the March constitution was transferred under the 1997 constitution to the Council of Ministers and the Prime Minister.

Basic presumptions in the judicial election verification process in a democratic state

The election verification process, understood as checking the correctness of their course within the legally prescribed framework, is an essential element of the election procedure in a democratic state. This process in a relatively short period of time, must lead to the declaration of validity or nullity of the elections, which is necessary for confirming or contradicting the democratic legitimacy of elected representatives of power. The complexity of the elections translates into the complexity of the process of their verification, which, in order to simplify it, leads to the use of legally established presumptions in it. The aim of this study is the theoretical analysis of the basic election presumptions of democratic states, i.e. the presumption of validity of elections and the presumption of constitutionality of the election procedure, taking into account the systemic dangers related to their incorrect application.

Normative model for the verification of municipal elections’ validity – analysis based on the jurisprudence

The democratic electoral process implies the existence of mechanisms that verify the elections’ validity. In Poland, competence in this area has been entrusted to the courts. The assessment of the elections’ validity is based on the rules deriving from the binding provisions of law. The purpose of this article is to discuss the claim that the model for verifying the validity of local elections, which is shaped by the normative regulations and the jurisprudence, is characterised by a significant, perhaps excessive, degree of restrictiveness. The rigorous provisions determine the course of interpretation thereof. In practice, it means that the presumption of elections’ validity is enhanced. This analysis of the provisions of law and selected court judgments will allow for the formulation of final conclusions regarding the current model for verification of the municipal elections’ validity.

Verification of the validity of nationwide elections in Poland

The article discusses the procedure for verifying the validity of nationwide elections in Poland. The author draws attention to the important role attributed to elections as an essential element of the democratic system and the need to preserve the will expressed by the sovereign in voting. Verification of elections in Poland is carried out by the Supreme Court, in a two-stage procedure involving issuing an opinion on the election protests lodged and then passing a resolution on the validity of the elections. The author draws attention to the narrow and formalistic interpretation of legal norms in the course of issuing a resolution on the validity of elections.

Parliamentary proposals for the implementation of direct starosts and province marshals elections

Out of the executive bodies of a local self-government, only the voits (mayors, presidents of cities) are elected in direct elections, whereas on the poviat and voivodeship level, we are dealing with collective management boards, the members of which are chosen indirectly by the council of the poviat, and by the voivodeship sejmik (a regional assembly). However, this issue is not discussedparticularly frequently, in parliamentary practice there have been attempts at introducing direct elections of starosts andvoivodeship marshals, which are justified by the need of strengthening the degree of social legitimization for such offices, as well as forharmonizing the regulations which are applicable on all local government levels. The goal of this article was to proceed with a critical analysis of the projects which have been submitted within this scope, as well as to answer the question: which conditions should be met so that the introduction of a fundamental change in the starost and voivodeship martial election procedure could be assessed positively.

(Dis)proportionality of the Polish Local Elections

Studies on disproportionality of proportional electoral systems proves prove that district magnitude is a key variable determining deviations from proportionality in election results. This paper will shows how district magnitude affects electoral disproportionality by employing empirical data from Polish local elections in 2018. The analysis will prove that Polish “proportional” electoral system to local councils leads to highly disproportional results.

Committees of inquiry in interwar Poland (1919–1939)

Committees of inquiry are an important element of parliamentary oversight of the executive. In Poland, this institution also has a long tradition, although it was shaped twice over the course of a century from the beginning, under completely different system conditions. Our article aims to present the regulations and activities of such committees in the period – before and after the adoption of the 1921 Constitution. A closer look at the regulations and practice from the twenty-year period will allow for a better understanding of the regulation and functioning of the committees of inquiry provided for in Art. 111 of the Constitution of 1997, created – as its preamble declares – “in reference to the best traditions of the First and Second Polish Republic”.

Search for Analogies of the Reform of the Legislative Chambers 1921–1935, 1997–?

An article devoted to the parliament during the existence of the March Constitution of 1921, and comparing its similarities with the Constitution of 2nd April 1997 in terms of the political system and its functioning. Based on the provisions of both constitutions and the practice, the author has undertaken to comment on the existing analogies and the possible need to amend the currently binding constitution.