The Right to Conscientious Objection as a Constitutional Category: Selected Issues. A Comparative Study of Fundamental Laws and Constitutional Courts’ Jurisprudence
- Institution: University of Rzeszow
- ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3861-9103
- Year of publication: 2024
- Source: Show
- Pages: 163-183
- DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppk.2024.02.12
- PDF: ppk/78/ppk7812.pdf
The article presents the results of a comparative study focusing on the right to conscientious objection in constitutions of modern states. This right is primarily associated with military service. In approximately a dozen constitutions, it stands as an independent, general right to conscientious objection. The constitutional scope of the given right is typically broad, with lawmakers seldom specifying the sources or conditions for its exercise. The contentious nature of the analysed right causes its explicit challenge in several constitutions. Case law, especially that of constitutional courts, reveals that the normative presence and the specifics of the right to conscientious objection within a particular legal system may not necessarily originate directly from constitutional provisions. Court decisions rendered in various countries sometimes attribute a constitutional character to this right, even when the fundamental law does not explicitly articulate it. Conversely, there are occasional restrictive interpretations of unequivocal constitutional provisions regarding conscientious objection.
Prawo do sprzeciwu sumienia jako kategoria konstytucyjna w świetle komparatystycznego studium ustaw zasadniczych i orzecznictwa sądów konstytucyjnych: wybrane zagadnienia
W artykule zaprezentowano rezultaty komparatystycznego studium konstytucji współczesnych państw pod kątem gwarantowanego w nich prawa do sprzeciwu sumienia. Prawo to najczęściej dotyczy służby wojskowej. W pojedynczych przypadkach sprowadza się do innej partykularnej klauzuli sumienia. W kilkunastu konstytucjach przyjmuje postać generalnego prawa do sprzeciwu sumienia. Unormowania konstytucyjne tytułowego prawa są zwykle ogólne. Z rzadka ustrojodawcy określają źródła sprzeciwu sumienia czy warunki skorzystania z prawa do sprzeciwu sumienia, w szczegółach odsyłając do ustaw. Kontrowersyjność tytułowej kategorii prawa tłumaczy jego eksplikatywne zakwestionowanie w kilkunastu ustawach zasadniczych. Praktyka orzecznicza, zwłaszcza sądów konstytucyjnych, pokazuje że normatywny byt i zakres treściowy prawa do sprzeciwu sumienia w danym porządku prawnym niekoniecznie jest prostą konsekwencją postanowień konstytucji. W judykaturze poszczególnych państw zdarza się uznawać konstytucyjny charakter prawa do sprzeciwu sumienia pomimo braku jego wyraźnego wyartykułowania w tekście ustawy zasadniczej, jak i czynić wykładnię zawężającą językowo jednoznacznych przepisów konstytucyjnych w tym względzie.
REFERENCES:
- Adams M., Artikel 99 – Gewetensbezwaren militaire dienst, https://www.nederlandrechtsstaat.nl/grondwet/inleiding-hoofdstuk-5-wetgeving-en-bestuur/artikel-99-gewetensbezwaren-militaire-dienst/
- Blicharz G. ed., Freedom of conscience: a comparative law perspective, Warszawa 2019.
- Brzozowski W., Sprzeciw sumienia wobec świadczeń na rzecz obrony, “Przegląd Sądowy” 2022, no. 3.
- Brzozowski W., Ponownie o sprzeciwie sumienia, “Państwo i Prawo” 2018, no. 12.
- Chiassoni P., Protecting Freedom of Conscience in a Constitutional State, “Diritto e questioni pubbliche” 2016, vol. 16, no. 2.
- Çınar Ö.H., Conscientious Objection to Military Service in International Human Rights Law, New York 2013.
- Davis S., Constitutional Right or Legislative Grace? The Status of Conscientious Objection Exemptions, “Florida State University Law Review” 1991, vol. 19, no. 1.
- O’Halloran K., Conscientious Objection. Dissent and Democracy in a Common Law Context, Cham 2023.
- Łętowska E., Tylnymi drzwiami ku uniwersalnej klauzuli sumienia? (uwagi na marginesie „sprawy drukarza” przed TK), “Państwo i Prawo” 2022, no. 2.
- Martínez-Torrón J., Adjusting general legal rules to freedom of conscience: the Spanish approach, “Revue du droit des religions” 2019, no. 7
- Olszówka M., Guarantees and the Essence of the Right to Conscientious Objection [in:] Freedom of Conscience. A Comparative Law Perspective, ed. G. Blicharz, Warszawa 2019.
- Potrzeszcz J., The Conscience Clause of Service Providers from the Perspective of Legal Security, “Teka Komisji Prawniczej PAN Oddział w Lublinie” 2023, vol. XVI, no. 1.
- Proeschel C., Koussens D., Piraino F. ed., Religion, Law and the Politics of Ethical Diversity. Conscientious Objection and Contestation of Civil Norms, New York 2021.
- Saporiti M., For a General Legal Theory of Conscientious Objection, “Ratio Juris” 2015, vol. 28, no. 3.
- Smet S., Conscientious Objection through the Contrasting Lenses of Tolerance and Respect, “Oxford Journal of Law and Religion” 2019, vol. 8, no. 1.
- Sousa e Brito J., Political Minorities and the Right to Tolerance: The Development of a Right to Conscientious Objection in Constitutional Law, “BYU Law Review” 1999, no. 2.
- Stanisz P., Pawlikowski J., Ordon M. ed., Sprzeciw sumienia w praktyce medycznej – aspekty etyczne i prawne, Lublin 2014.
- Zucca L., Is There a Right to Conscientious Objection? [in:] The Conscience Wars: Rethinking the Balance between Religion, Identity, and Equality, eds. S. Mancini, M. Rosenfeld, Cambridge 2018.
- Undurraga V., Sadler M., The misrepresentation of conscientious objection as a new strategy of resistance to abortion decriminalisation, “Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters” 2019, vol. 27, no. 2.
- Constitution of the Republic of Albania of 21 October 1998, https://www.pp.gov.al/rc/doc/kushtetuta_e_integruar_me_ndryshimet_2020_5584.pdf.
- Constitution of the Republic of Angola of 21 January 2010, https://jurisprudencia.tribunalconstitucional.ao/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Edicao-Especial-Actualizada-2022.pdf.
- Constitution of Antigua and Barbuda od 31 July 1981, http://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/cap-23.pdf.
- Constitution of the Republic of Armenia od 5 July 1995, http://www.parliament.am/parliament.php?id=constitution&lang=arm&enc=utf8.
- Constitution of the Republic of Austria of 1 October 1920, https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/GeltendeFassung.wxe?Abfrage=Bundesnormen&Gesetzesnummer=10000138.
- Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan of 12 November 1995, https://president.az/az/pages/view/azerbaijan/constitution
- Constitution of The Commonwealth of The Bahamas of 20 June 1973, http://laws.bahamas.gov.bs/cms/images/LEGISLATION/PRINCIPAL/1973/1973-1080/TheConstitution_1.pdf.
- Constitution of Barbados of 30 November 1966, https://barbados.org/constitution.htm.
- Constitution of Belize of 21 September 1981, http://www.nationalassembly.gov.bz/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Belize-Constitution-2017updated-March.pdf.
- Constitution of the Republic of Belarus of 15 March 1994, https://president.gov.by/be/gosudarstvo/constitution.
- Constitution of the Plurinational State of Bolivia of 25 January 2009, https://tcpbolivia.bo/tcp/content/normas-0#overlay-context=.
- Constitution of the Republic of Botswana of 30 September 1966, https://www.parliament.gov.bw/images/constitution.pdf.
- Constitution of the Federative Republic of Brazil of 5 October 1988, http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/Constituicao/Constituicao.htm.
- Constitution of the Republic of Cabo Verde of 4 September 1992, https://portais.parlamento.cv/Constituicao/arquivos/CR_CV.pdf.
- Constitution of the Republic of Chad of 31 March 1996, https://presidence.td/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/CONSTITUTION-DE-LA-REPUBLIQUE-PROMULGUEE-04-MAI-2018.pdf.
- Constitution of the Republic of Colombia of 4 July 1991, https://www.suin-juriscol.gov.co/viewDocument.asp?ruta=Constitucion/1687988.
- Constitution of the Republic of Croatia of 22 December 1990, https://www.usud.hr/sites/default/files/dokumenti/Redakcijski_prociscen_tekst_Ustava_Republike_Hrvatske_Ustavni_sud_Republike_Hrvatske_15._sijecnja_2014_.pdf.
- Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus of 16 August 1960, http://www.cylaw.org/nomoi/enop/non-ind/syntagma/full.html.
- Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedoms of the Czech Republic of 16 December 1992, https://www.hrad.cz/cs/ceska-republika/ustava-cr.
- Constitution of Kingdom of Denmark of 5 June 1953, https://www.ft.dk/da/dokumenter/bestil-publikationer/publikationer/grundloven/danmarks-riges-grundlov.
- Constitution of the Commonwealth of Dominica of 25 July 1978, https://dominica.gov.dm/laws/chapters/chap1-01.pdf.
- Constitution of the Republic of Dominicana of 13 June 2015, https://mepyd.gob.do/wp-content/uploads/drive/Transparencia/Base%20legal%20de%20la%20in-stitucion/Constitucion/Constitucio%CC%81n%20Dominicana%202015.pdf
- Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador of 20 October 2008, http://www.asambleanacional.gov.ec/201007053697/noticias/boletines/constitucion-de-la-republica-del-ecuadorversion-en-espano.html.
- Constitution of the Republic of Estonia od 28 June 1992, https://president.ee/et/eesti-vabariik/pohiseadus.
- Constitution of the Kingdom of Eswatini of 26 July 2005, http://www.gov.sz/images/stories/Constitution%20of%20%20SD-2005A001.pdf.
- Constitution of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia of December 1994, https://ethiopianembassy.be/wp-content/uploads/Constitution-of-the-FDRE.pdf.
- Constitution of the Republic of Fiji of 7 September 2013, https://www.fiji.gov.fj/getattachment/a3cddc01-dc73-4823-83b8-f290672ddae0/2013-Constitution-of-The-Republicof-Fiji.aspx.
- Constitution of the Republic of Finland of 11 June 1999, https://finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/1999/19990731.
- Constitution of the Republic of Gambia of 16 January 1997, https://www.assembly.gm/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/CONSTITUTION-OF-THE-GAMBIA-1997.pdf.
- Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany of 23 May 1949, https://www.bundestag.de/parlament/aufgaben/rechtsgrundlagen/grundgesetz.
- Constitution of the Republic of Ghana of 28 April 1992, https://judicial.gov.gh/index.php/fundamental-human-rights-and-freedom.
- Constitution of the Republic of Greece of 9 June 1975, https://www.hellenicparliament.gr/Vouli-ton-Ellinon/To-Politevma/Syntagma/.
- Constitution of Grenada of 19 December 1973, https://www.gov.gd/index.php/government/the-constitution.
- Constitution of the Cooperative Republic of Guyana of 20 February 1980, http://parliament.gov.gy/constitution.pdf.
- Constitution of Hungary of 18 April 2011, https://njt.hu/jogszabaly/2011-4301-02-00#foot2.
- Constitution of the Republic of Iceland of 17 June 1944, https://www.althingi.is/lagas/nuna/1944033.html.
- Constitution of the Republic of Ireland of 1 July 1937, https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/d5bd8c-constitution-of-ireland/.
- Constitution of the Republic of Kenya of 4 August 2010, http://kenyalaw.org/kl/index.php?id=398.
- Constitution of Kiribati of 4 July 1979, https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1979/719/made.
- Constitution of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan of 21 June 2010, http://cbd.minjust.gov.kg/act/view/ky-kg/202913?cl=ky-kgr.,.
- Constitution of the Kingdom of Lesotho of 2 April 1993, https://www.gov.ls/download/lesotho-constitution/
- Constitution of the Principality of Liechtenstein of 5 October 1921, https://www.gesetze.li/konso/1921015000.
- Law “On the Procedure for Entry into Force of the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania” of 25 October 1992, www3.lrs.lt/home/Konstitucija/Konstitucija.htm.
- Constitution of the Republic of Malta of 21 September 1964, https://legislation.mt/eli/const/eng.
- Constitution of the Republic of Marshall Islands of 1 May 1979, https://rmiparliament.org/cms/images/LEGISLATION/PRINCIPAL/1979/1979-0000/ConstitutionoftheRepublicoftheMarshallIslands_1.pdf.
- Constitution of the Republic of Mauritius of 12 March 1968, https://mauritiusassembly.govmu.org/mauritiusassembly/index.php/the-constitution/.
- Constitution of Montenegro of 19 October 2007, https://www.skupstina.me/me/ustav-crne-gore.
- Constitution of the Republic of Mozambique of 16 November 2004., https://www.masa.gov.mz/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Constituicao_republica_mocambique.pdf.
- Constitution of the Republic of Namibia of 9 February 1990, https://www.gov.na/constitution.
- Constitution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands of 28 March 1814, https://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001840/2023-02-22.
- Constitution of the Republic of Nicaragua of 19 November 1986, https://www.asamblea.gob.ni/assets/constitucion.pdf.
- Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria z 29 May 1999, http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm.
- Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea of 16 August 1975, http://www.parliament.gov.pg/constitution-of-the-independent-state-of-papua-new-guinea.
- Constitution of the Republic of Paraguay of 20 June 1992, https://www.bacn.gov.py/leyes-paraguayas/9580/constitucion-nacional-.
- Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 2 April 1997, U. 1997, No. 78 item 483.
- Constitution of the Portuguese Republic of 2 April 1976, https://www.tribunalconstitucional.pt/tc/constituicao_.html.
- Constitution of Romania of 21 November 1991, https://www.cdep.ro/pls/dic/site2015.page?id=339&idl=1.
- Constitution of the Russian Federation of 12 December 1993, http://kremlin.ru/acts/constitution.
- Constitution of the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis of 22 June 1983, https://nia.gov.kn/documents/constitution/.
- Constitution of Saint Lucia of 22 February 1978, http://www.govt.lc/constitution.
- Constitution of Saint Vincent and Grenadines of 26 July 1979, http://www.gov.vc/images/visitors/1979_constitution.pdf.
- Constitution of the Independent State of Samoa of 28 October 1960, https://www.palemene.ws/wp-content/uploads/Constitution-Eng.pdf.
- Constitution of the Republic of Serbia of 30 September 2006, http://www.parlament.rs/upload/documents/Ustav_Srbije_pdf.pdf.
- Constitution of the Republic of Sierra Leone of 3 September 1993, https://www.parliament.gov.sl/constitution-of-sierra-leone.html.
- Constitution of the Republic of Slovakia of 1 September 1992, https://www.ustavnysud.sk/ustava-slovenskej-republiky.
- Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia of 23 December 1991, http://www.pisrs.si/Pis.web/pregledPredpisa?id=USTA1.
- Constitution of Solomon Islands of 8 June 1978, https://www.siec.gov.sb/index.php/nge-resources/legislation/37-solomon-islands-constitution/file.html.
- Constitution of the Kingdom of Spain of 27 December 1978, https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/espana/leyfundamental/Paginas/index.aspx.
- Constitution of the Republic of Suriname of 30 September 1987, https://suriname.nu/101alg/grondwet01.html.
- Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation of 18 April 1999, https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/1999/404/de.
- Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor of 22 March 2002, http://timor-leste.gov.tl/?cat=37&lang=tp; http://timor-leste.gov.tl/?cat=37&lang=pt.
- Constitution of Tuvalu of 1 October 1986, https://www.gov.tv/tuvalu-constitution/.
- Constitution of the Republic of Uganda of 8 October 1995, http://statehouse.go.ug/sites/default/files/attachments/Constitution_1995.pdf.
- Constitution of Ukraine of 28 June 1996, https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/254%D0%BA/96-%D0%B2%D1%80#Text.
- Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela of 20 December 1999, http://www.cne.gob.ve/web/normativa_electoral/constitucion/indice.php.
- Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam of 28 November 2013, https://vbpl.vn/botuphap/Pages/vbpq-toanvan.aspx?ItemID=32801.
- Constitution of the Republic of Zambia of 30 August 1991, http://www.parliament.gov.zm/sites/default/files/documents/amendment_act/Constitution%20of%20Zambia%20%20%28Amendment%29%2C%202016-Act%20No.%202_0.pdf.
komparatystyka prawo do sprzeciwu sumienia sąd konstytucyjny, konstytucja right to conscientious objection constitutional court Constitution comparative study