Basics of Greenland political system: selected issues

Greenland, being an autonomous territory of the Kingdom of Denmark, now confirms its aspirations for independence. In recent years, there is a noticeable broadening of the range of the autonomy of the territory. Currently, the basics of political system regulates Act on Greenland Self-Government of 2009, which primarily focuses on the political and economic relations with Denmark, while setting a road to independence. This independence largely depends since the creation of the financial basis of the existence of a future state. There is no doubt that the system of authorities in Greenland is already adapted to future statehood. This is largely inspired on solutions used in the Nordic countries. Legislative power belongs to unicameral parliament (Inatsisartut), which comes from the general election. It consists of 31 MPs elected on the basis of the principle of proportionality. In addition to the legislative function, it is also control functions and financial function. Executive power is exercised by the government (Naalakkersuisut), which maybe dismissed by the Parliament. Draws attention that the position of High Commissioner, which is representative of Denmark, is essentially representational purposes only.

Specificity of the constitutional arrangements in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Solutions imposed in peace agreement signed in November 1995 in Dayton, Ohio, USA, make the system of Bosnia and Herzegovina doubtlessly the most unusual, and not only in Europe. Starting from the collegiate three-member heads of state, through specific design of the parliament, elected similarly as head of state in not fully democratic election, ending on the Constitutional Court, which includes foreign nationals. Particular attention should be paid also to the atypical state structure, based on the asymmetric units, to an equally unique condominium, as well as to the institution of the Special Representative of the international community, who holds nearly unlimited control over all government bodies at all levels. All these features distinguish Bosnia and Herzegovina, and make that its system eludes of a clear and simple analysis

Third-party effect of fundamental rights in constitutional regulations

The acceptance of the general formula of the horizontal effect of constitutional rights and freedoms in the form of appropriate regulation at the constitutional level is original solution present in few countries, for example in Republic of South Africa and Greece. The article shows the background and the consequences of the introduction of these regulations in the light of statements of legal doctrine and judicature. It is also noticed on an example of Federal Republic of Germany, that the lack of distinct regulation is not a hindrance to practical recognition of the horizontality of particular rights and freedoms in jurisprudence. In the article are presented crucial arguments of followers and oponents of horizontal effect of constitutional rights and freedoms. Research done for the article lead to the general conclusion that the legal doctrine in the world is ready to accept in principle only indirect third party effect of constitutional rigts via the general provisions of private law.

Interpretation of the constitution as a process of its concretization

The article discusses some methods of interpretation of the constitution aimed at concretization of its precepts and analyzes their implications for the normative character of the constitution. The author departs from the assumption that traditional directives of interpretation designed for the interpretation of statutory laws prove insufficient for the construction of constitutional precepts. Due to their general character, synthetic wording and structural openness constitutional provisions require not only an explicatory but also a concretizing construction. The elements of a norm which have not been explicitly expressed in the text of the constitution are discovered in the process of argumentation in which elements of social reality as well as subjective stances of an interpreter play a considerable role. This process can be subjected to methodological directives only with difficulty that is why in order to define the scope of the interpreter’s latitude and to ensure the objective character of the interpretation there is a need to resort to a theory of the constitution enshrined in the text of the constitution.

Status of the assistant judge – challenges and dilemmas in the light  of the Law on Common Courts

Profession of judge’s assistant in Polish judiciary is common for more than eleven years. The intention of the legislature he had to fill a gap in the structure of the judiciary by creating highly qualified workers with higher legal education, appointed to carry out a number of substantive steps to settle the matter. Young graduates of law in this profession see their chance to become a judge, gain the necessary experience, knowledge, skills, application of the law and reasoning. This is the reasons why it should not be missing applications to take up this work. But the reality is something else. Despite constantly occurring listings of competitions organized who are willing constantly missing. The reasons for this state of affairs should be seen primarily in the ever-changing rules for judge’s assistant, who, paradoxically, do not solve the main problems: continuously incrementing the requirements of the task, the salaries and working conditions. Recently emerged clearly these issues, to which 8 July 2013, the amendments, among which the most important is to remove the requirement to complete the application by the candidate for the judge’s assistant. The article is to outline the systematic position of judge’s assistant in the Polish legal system, including practical and applicable state of law.

Vote of confidence in the 1949 Basic Law for the Federal Republic  of Germany and in the 1997 Constitution of the Republic of Poland  in the context of both states’ parliamentary system’s rationalization

The article contains a comparative analysis of the provisions concerning the vote of confidence currently in force in Germany and Poland. The aim of the article is to evaluate the level of the parliamentary system’s rationalization in both countries, as far as the aforementioned legal institution is concerned. The concept of the rationalization of parliamentarism is construed by the author as aiming at political stability and effectiveness by means of properly formed legal tools, through strengthening of the government at the expense of the legislative power. The multifunctional character of the German vote of confidence and, especially, the lack of the chancellor’s obligation to dismiss in case of defeat at the voting on the motion in the parliament, justify the conclusion that the German version of the analyzed institution fulfills the concept of the rationalized parliamentarism more accurately than its Polish counterpart.

Relations between the Sejm committees and the Constitutional Court

Relations between the Polish Parliamentary (Sejm) committees and the Polish Constitutional Court. The issues presented in this paper concern the relation between the Parliamentary (Sejm) committees and the Constitutional Court. Special emphasis was put on the problem of influence of herein mentioned committees on the activities of the Constitutional Court.

The constitutional right to compensation in the Third Republic of Poland

The article consists of a review of judicial decisions and scholarly opinions with respect to the treasury’s liability for damages. The historical review part discusses the regulation binding in this respect during the Second Republic of Poland (1918–1939) and the People’s Republic of Poland (1944–1989). The part devoted to article 77 of the current Constitution of Poland reviews the opinions of Polish scholars concerning the legal character of this norm. The basic aim of the paper was to provide an answer to the question whether the said norm is legally binding or it is just a declaration. An attempt was also made to determine whether the broadly understood rule of compensation for damages is adequately regulated by the provisions of article 417¹ § 1 of the Polish Civil Code. The article also presents an analysis of article 77 with regard to grounds for liability. The final part of the article describes the relation between article 77 of the Constitution and article 417¹ § 1 of the Polish Civil Code which regulates the state’s responsibility for legal injustice (a situation where a legal act is found inconsistent with superior laws and therefore damage has occurred).

Sejm after four years from the adoption of the Treaty of Lisbon

The article attempts to give a comprehensive analysis of the legal and parliamentary practice in Poland, made after four years from the adoption of the Treaty of Lisbon. The special focus is given to three issues: regulations of the so-called cooperation law, regulations of the Rules of Procedure of the Sejm for the Committee of the European Union and the practical aspects of proceedings of the EU legislative proposals in the Sejm. The starting point of the above analysis is protocol on the application of the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality, introduced by the Treaty of Lisbon, which impose on the EU institutions to directly inform national parliaments of the content of EU legislative proposals for which is provided to express an opinion. Therefore, the Lisbon’s Treaty confers on Polish parliament the power having the nature of a veto in relation to decision reducing sovereign rights of Poland as the one of the member states. However, the present role of the Sejm in the functioning of the EU depends on its ability to exert a real influence on the European policy conducting by the government, which is related with a possibility of concluding the political consensus on the national level. The author suggests that for supervision of the EU’s principles of subsidiarity and proportionality, not only greater activeness of Polish parliament, but also providing mechanisms for the enforcement of the members of the Council of Ministers of the political responsibility for their actions in the EU institutions, is required. Otherwise, the solutions adopted in the Treaty of Lisbon will not affect on the existing European policy way in Poland, which leads government.

A handful of comments on the legal differentiation of church donations  in the light of administrative and court practice

The article concerns the controversy continuing for many years around the donations presented to ecclesiastical legal persons. In March 2005 the dispute seemed to be finished by the decision of the Financial Chamber of the Supreme Administrative Court. Yet the amendments to the Act on personal income tax from natural persons and changing other acts from 30th June 2005 only aggravated the controversy, especially as its Art.26 section 6d is excessively incoherent and breaking the principles of correct legislative technique. Moreover, the judicature of administrative courts, adjudicating the complaints lodged against tax chambers, in fact always to the disadvantage of the taxpayer, raises serious interpretative doubts. The author asks important questions de lege ferenda, pointing at the same time to the fact of the legislator tolerating serious legal gaps, which turns against the taxpayer in court practice.

The Constitutional Court and the control of legislative omissions

The presented consideration involves the possibility of granting to the Constitutional Tribunal a greater role in scope of rulings regarding legislative omission. Legal solutions binding in other countries, which has been presented in this work, allows to defense of the thesis, that there is a practical possibility of ruling in aforementioned scope on level of constitutional judiciary. Polish Constitutional Tribunal has the right to react to such omission by using so called signaling decision, which is not a sufficient solution.

The identity of the Constitution in the political system  from the point of view of the German experience

Amendments to the constitutions indicate that they are not timeless, unchanging. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the fundamental for constitution are political settlements which, in the form of a – more or less – detailed regulations (standards) determine the legal foundations of the political system of the state. The dichotomy of basic standards, such as standards of competence (Kompetenznormen) and standards of conduct (Verfahrensnormen) must be complemented by the revision standards, also known as standards permitting the change (Revisionsnormen). Presented so, let’s call it here, the flexibility of the state law proves functioning of the state or in the state does not occur exclusively by legal norms, but also social and political ones. These are moral principles, customs or other rules of conduct, which reflection – as it seems at first glance – would be vain to seek in our collective life. Meanwhile, the presence of even just the rules of fairness or any other code of honor is the best proof that, without the socio – political touch, legal norm would remain only a dead letter provision.

Electoral Administration in Poland from 1918 to 1991

This article present the origins of contemporary election administration bodies and their evolution during the twentieth century in Poland. The paper elaborate institutions organizing elections in the Second Republic, the Polish People’s Republic, and in the early period of the Third Republic of Poland. The key authorities at that time were the National Electoral Commission and the General Electoral Commissioner at the central level and provincial and district electoral commissions. The author have discuss the operation of the electoral authorities based on existing in those days electoral law. The article describes the tradition of election administration in Poland and simultaneously exposes the policies of individual governments to bodies, which was set up to guard the freedom and integrity of electoral procedures. Without a shadow of a doubt, the experience accumulated in the years 1918–1991 led to the creation of one of the best functioning institutions, which is nowadays the basis of democracy in the Third Republic of Poland.

Nation-wide referendum in the Republic of Belarus

The aim of the article is to present the issue of the nation-wide referendum in contemporary Belarus, country called ‘the last European dictatorship’. The paper is first study devoted to this issue in Polish literature. The author, basing on Belarus’ constitution and other legal acts investigates theoretical and practical aspects of the referendum. The author also describes all cases of implementation of the nation-wide referendum in Belarus after 1991 and discuses their role in the process of shaping contemporary political system of this country. He concludes that referendum in Belarus is rather a tool of political mobilization of the society under authoritarian regime than a form of exercising citizens’ voting rights.

Concept of the essence of freedom and individual rights  and their formal requirement for limitations

In a democratic state ruled by law limitation of the constitutionally guaranteed freedoms and rights may be an exception to the general principle of the protection of freedom. The Constitution does not confer the status of the individual libertarian absolute and provides in certain cases of specific conditions the possibility of its limitations. Among these requirements are the formal and material aspects of limitations, the principle of proportionality and prohibition of violating the essence of freedoms and rights.The essence of the concept is indeterminate, general and undefined in the complete way It stands as judgement criterion and includes in its function a number of demands. Analysis of the Constitutional Court cases elucidates elements of the concept of the essence of freedoms and rights, and the formal aspect of restrictions.

The parliamentarisation of the Moroccan system of government  on the basis of the constitution of July 29, 2011

The paper concerns the phenomenon of parliamentarisation of the Moroccan system of government in the light of the constitution of 2011. The act was adopted as a result of civil unrest known as the so-called Arab Spring. The new constitution replaced the basic law of 1996. According to the new constitutional provisions, the role of the monarch has been limited. At the same time, the constitution has improved the position of the government headed by the prime minister. Moreover, the status of the parliament has been changed. By the way of example, the king appoints the prime minister from within the political party, which wins the parliamentary elections, and with a view to their results. In comparison with the previous constitution, the government seems to be more strongly connected with the parliament – especially with the first chamber. The latter has better tools for parliamentary oversight. Currently, the Moroccan system of government is closer to the European model of parliamentarianism.

The political position of President of the Czech Republic in view  of recent amendments to the Constitution of 8 February 2012

The subject of the article below is the appearance of Czech Republic President’s political position under the newest amendments to the Constitution from February 8, 2012. At the beginning, reasons for the Constitution to be corrected were pointed out, which among all, had a political background. Later, the article focused on the presentation of detailed analysis of each change. With the historical support, a comparison was made between the current basic law and its previous version, as well as the comparison between the traditions of Czech and Czechoslovakian constitutionalism. The most important change was the introduction, common for the presidential or semi-presidential system method of choosing the head of the state in common elections, which occurred by limiting president’s prerogatives and normalization of the range of president’s responsibilities, stepping out of the rules of law and the constitutional irresponsibility of the head of the state.

The relationship rules limiting the rights and freedoms of man and citizen  in emergencies and in the state of normal functioning of the state

The issue of permissibility of limitation of the freedoms and rights of persons and citizens in extraordinary measures causes a lot of problems. They are consequence the imposition two different regulations relative the limitations: the general regulation appearing from article 31 paragraph 3 Constitution and the special regulation including in the Chapter XI Constitution concerning exclusively the extraordinary measures. The answer for the question, when and in which circumstances it shall adapt the special rules concerning the limitation of the freedoms and rights in extraordinary measures and when the general regulations appears from article 31 paragraph 3 Constitution, depends on a few matters. Firstly, it depends on the type of introducing extraordinary measure.Secondly, it depends on the type of the freedom or right, which it have to be limited. The next problem, it is the method of interpretation and applying the rules concerning the limitations. In this area, the rule of proportionality in interpretation of the Constitutional Tribunal is of great importance.

This paper analyzes judicial review (concentrated and abstract) exercised by the Brazilian Federal Supreme Court (STF) and the methods for and theories that allow an empirical approach to this phenomenon as a decision-making process, making use of political institutions (distribution of powers and competences) and legal interpretation (legal literature and concepts). The institutional context of the decision-making process assigned by the Brazilian Constitution to the Federal Supreme Court (STF) makes it act by means of concentrated judicial review, ascribing to it the power to judge the constitutionality of federal and state law or normative acts, judicially reviewing these norms. The objective of this study is to determine the role of judicial review and the extent of concentrated judicial review, using as empirical basis the decisions of the Supreme Court in 5011 Direct Actions of Unconstitutionality (ADIs), adjudicated between 1988 and 2013. In the empirical test, there are the following main and mutually exclusive hypotheses: H1- Judicial review adds an institutional collective veto player in decision-making (institutional analysis), increasing policy stability while reducing size the winning set of the status quo or expanding the core of unanimity; H2- Judicial review does not add an institutional/collective veto player, because, institutionally, the constitutional design and the process of appointment of the members of STF indicates the validity of the absorption rule of the Court in concentrated judicial review by other veto players. Secondly, there are the following hypotheses: H3 – The number of legitimized plaintiffs for the petition of judicial review cases (ADI) increases policy stability and reduces importance of agenda setting and decision-making capacity of majority coalitions in decision making; H4 – The number of legitimate plaintiffs for the petition of judicializing measures increases the state/federative policy stability and is innocuous to federal policy stability and decision-making. Conclusions: The data demonstrates that H1 is supported in federative/state decision-making and little evident national level, partially refuting H2. However, given the number of legitimized plaintiffs, the massive introduction of judicializing measures at the national level indicates that judicial review is used by minorities as signaling for political positioning and maximizing future electoral opportunities without effectively restricting government (H3). Judicial review is directed preferentially to increase federative/state policy stability, reducing the role of opposition majorities or restricting decisions to extend the federal decentralization by state decision making (H4).

In the article author analyses the experience of the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Latvia in applying temporary adjustment in examining constitutional complaints submitted by persons. In view of the case law of the Constitutional Court, the rulings of the Constitutional Court regarding issues not envisaged in the Constitutional Court procedure are analysed as well. Thus, the article provides answers to questions – whether the Constitutional Court may suspend legal proceedings and legislation procedure.

Helvetica Constitution (1798) – the first constitution of Switzerland

The constitution of the Helvetic Republic of 1798 was the first act of constitutional rank in the history of the State. Developed by the Swiss, foreign institutional solutions separate Swiss tradition contained and to the resistance of the cantons has been imposed by force under the pressure of the French troops. For 5 years of duration, based on her settlement had taken place political experiment where a total rupture with the centuries-old model of Confederation of cantons to the State of a „One and indivisible”. The Constitution also created the first legislative authority of the Republic (the Senate and the Great Council), the Executive – Directorate and Judicial power – the Supreme Court. In addition, a set of freedoms and civil liberties.

Evolution of republican laity in France as of adoption of the law of  December 9, 1905 about separation of Churches from the state –  selected legal issues

The article presents an issue of evolution of radical version of the French state laity proclaimed in the law of 9 December 1905 about separation of Churches from the state. The author recognizes that expression of a consent by the state to establishment of catholic diocesan congregations, apart from worship congregations, numerous forms of indirect subsidizing of religious communities with the use of public funds or implementation of constitutional standards with respect to the principle of laity emphasizing a guarantee function of the principle as regards the freedom of conscience and religion, constitute significant examples of mitigation of the French version of the separation. On the other hand, the author, indicated to recently observed cases of exacerbation of laity in some fields, which is well illustrated by implementation of a prohibition to wear religious symbols or garment, which are used by pupils of state schools for the purposes of ostentatious manifestation of their religious affiliations, prohibition to cover faces in public space or implementation of the charter of secularity in schools. Consequently, the author assumes that the contemporary models of relationships between the state and church in France is ambiguous, which makes one adopt a sceptical approach to any attempt to define it in a general manner.

The legal basis of the right to health care in Poland

The topic of the article is the analysis of legal basis governing the right to health in the Polish Republic. Polish health care system, which, in practice, implementing the right to health is characterized by far-reaching instability, but its basic foundations remain the same. Statutory regulations of 1989 are subject to constant change, and the solutions implemented constitutionality was challenged by the Constitutional Court. Also, the- re is currently no comprehensive vision of the health system, and all the changes were made so far is partial. Lack of comprehensive reforms, as well as the disorder in some areas of the health system by adopting the law uniformly regulating specific issues cau- sing adverse situations for beneficiaries and does not contribute to the stabilization of the legal system in this sector.

Legal protection of national anthem – characteristic and main functions

The present paper is an analysis of the legal regulations on national anthem in Polish Constitutional Legal system. The author claims that national anthem is a part of intangible national heritage and as a consequence individual can realize his cultural right thanks to the participation in anthem’s heritage. Paper presents constitutional regulation in relation to legal resolutions in different Member States. Art. 28 of Polish Constitution positioned in 1 st Chapter has very special meaning for the right to participate in national heritage’s fulfillment that was characterized in last part of the article.

A three-stage classification of the Constitution due to their mode of regulation changes on the example of the political system of modern European states

Article aims to demonstrate that applied the doctrine of constitutional law constitutional division due to their mode of change is anachronistic. Distribution of basic laws on flexible and rigid, introduced in the late nineteenth century became – in part because of the defects of the proposed classification, partly for other reasons – dysfunctional. The author makes a two-step verification scale through its reference to contemporary European countries and this example shows its flaws. In place of the above. scale suggests a much modified and based on stringent criteria of a three-stage scale, corresponding to cover identified diversity of the procedures used to change the constitution of modern European states.

Access to the public service in the light of the provisions of the  Constitution of the Republic of Poland – selected issues

The Constitution of 1997., is the first post-war Polish basic law which includes the guarantee of the right of access to the public service. In the art. 60 of the Constitution, the legislator has decided that Polish citizens enjoying full public rights shall have a right of access to public service on equal terms. Interpretation of the normative content of this provision may not be clear. Those rules do not contain a definition of „public service” or other indications that overcome the problems of interpretation as to the scope of the constitutional guarantee referred to in art. 60 of the Constitution. The purpose of this article is to determine the personal scope of the public service, and in particular to show that both the notary and bailiff, as a public official, but also a lawyer, legal advisor and tax advisor or patent attorney practicing in the so-called aid law perform a public service.

The realization of the principle of the formal equality in concepts  and activities of Polish political parties in 2011–2014

The aim of this research was to define how Polish political parties in parliament seventh term of office (date of election: 9 th October 2011) realized constitutional principle of equality of citizens. The analysis was concerned not only on declarative programme sphere but also on the area of political practice. The first part of the study was focused on platforms of particular politic parties which were announced before elections to the parliament in 2011. On the basis of those party platforms, the research showed to what degree and area political parties was revolved around women’s issues. The second part of the study provided a comparison of ideological declaration and real activities of particular political parties. There was also a verification of electoral register groups, which candidates entered the parliament taking into consideration the presence of women.

The challenges of globalization and the modern electoral system

The article focuses on one of the most essential problems of contemporary science of politics which is the issue of participation of citizens in elections and referenda and factors which stimulate and determinate this participation. It has been proved that the attendance at elections in Poland is one of the lowest in Europe and therefore ways of making Polish electoral system more citizen-friendly seem to be necessary. The state ought to stimulate the increase of political culture and create pro-civic attitudes among citizens. What may also be implemented is the reform of the electoral system which would allow citizens to vote by pro- xy, mail, the Internet, or even by sending a text message. Introduction of actions shown above seems to be inevitable and is not only linked with the fact that Polish society is aging, but also with simplifying the process of electoral decision- making for Polish migrants.

Interest groups in the Polish political system

There is an inextricable link between interest groups and the Polish state. Their origins can be traced back to the emergence of collective interests. As the state developed, interest groups advanced their organizational forms and secured more prominent influence on public policy. In the beginnings, interest groups played similar role as political parties. Eventually, their activities diverged and differences became apparent. The term „interest group” began to reflect an organized group of people pursuing particular interests of their members. That allowed to draw a demarcation line between political party and interest group based on the type of affairs they are engaging in, i.e. public versus particular, respectively. The importance of interest groups in democracy cannot be underestimated. It is argued that their participation in policy making improves the quality of law, as they are able to supply legislators with relevant data and analyses concerning particular social issues. However, in some instances, activities of interest groups are far from desirable in a democratic society. The most obvious threat stems from ability to corrupt government representatives vested with powers in policy making. Moreover, this particular characteristic is responsible for a negative image of different interest groups in society.

In the direction of Scandinavian model of parliamentary monarchy?  Changes in British constitutional law to the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011

Subject of the paper is Fixed -term Parliaments Act which was adopted in 2011, under which the British monarch lost power to dissolve the parliament, which was in force since the beginning of the English parliamentarism. The author analyzes the few Polish and Anglo-Saxon literature comments to the Act, and also indicates the consequences of different legal solutions to the structure of the British constitution. As a result of the adoption of the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 there has been a change in the British Constitution: constitutional convention of Lascelles Principles lost its power, and also the earlier prerogative of the monarch expired and the so-called statute laws was added yet another piece of legislation. The author also notes that the adoption of the Act led to the inhibition of evolutionary strengthening the position of Prime Minister, among other organs of the state.

Instruments for the protection of legal interests of the individual in the  context of access to public information in the light of the Law on Access to Public Information and in the Law on Spatial Planning and Development

The tendency to seek knowledge and the desire to gain it is a result of basic existential needs of an individual. The idea is to fulfil the so-called cognitive needs by having access to information which an individual needs in a given place and at a given time. Nowadays, access to public information as a certain type of a legal institution is not only a condition for existence of a democratic rule of law but above all it is an efficient tool to implement numerous civil rights. Therefore, a precise definition of what instruments are included in the concept of common information law based on general rules applicable in the dis-cussed range, as well as in the range of regulations related to specific areas of an individual’s life, plays an essential role in the functioning of an information society. Determination of measures which a unit can benefit from, or which have been created for an individual within the institution of access to information, in particular in the field of spatial planning and development, is the main subject of deliberations conducted in this paper.

The Genesis and Evolution of the Institution of the Minister  in the Polish Government System to the Constitution of 1997 Adoption

The paper presents the genesis and evolution of the minister in the Polish political system from the fourteenth century to the adoption of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland in 1997. Based on the literature study, the following issues have been presented: the origins of the institution of the minister of Poland, the rules of the ministerial offices appointment, competences and responsibilities of minister and the defining of its governmental position as independent officer and member of the collective body. The analysis leads to the conclusion that the institution of the minister, since the founding of this institution in the Constitution of May 3 to the solutions adopted on the basis of the Small Constitution of 1992, has the following characteristics in common: • the executive nature (minister always belonged to the executive authority), • the national range, • dual governmental role in the political system, i.e. as a single body specialized in a particular category of cases, as well as a member of a collegial body, • the political and constitutional responsibility. The study is based on an analysis of publications in the field of constitutional law and regulations contained in the various constitutions of the Republic of Poland, as well as ordinary legislation referring to the institution of the minister. The work has been complemented with an analysis of political practice in the field of the institution of minister development throughout history of the Republic of Poland.

Elections to the Polish Senate – Demands de lege ferenda

The article focuses on the reform of the Polish Senate. The main advantage of a bicameral parliament is the possibility of gaining dominance by different political parties in both chambers. Thanks to that the Senate can act as so called „chamber of reflection”. Meanwhile in Poland combination of elections to the Sejm and the Senate makes the party winning the elections to the Sejm also winning the elections to the Senate. Therefore it is necessary to consider the separation of the elections to this two chambers of parliament as well as change of the electoral law to the second chamber. These changes should lead to the transformation of the Senate to the „chamber of regions”. Thus strengthening the importance of the Senate which will begin to perform the functions of the „chamber of reflection”. Moreover thanks to the modifications suggested inhabitants of regions with less population will obtain greater impact on current politics.

Complaints against the validity of Polish elections to the  EU Parliament and their consideration in 2014 year

The election protests concerning Polish elections to the European Parliament from 2014 year focused on a number of specific issues. Noteworthy is the number of them – 64. So far, in Polish European elections of 2014 year brought them the most. Still, a large percentage of judgments in election protests are those, in which The Supreme Court shall not act upon a complaint filed by a person not entitled to do so based on the grounds laid down in electoral code. This may indicate the ignorance of people who made such a remedy on the timing and the grounds of his lodge.

Electoral rights of incapacitated people in comparison  to constitutional principle of equality before the law

The aim of this article is to discuss the matter of electoral rights of incapacitated people – with special attention to incapacity caused by psychological disorders (excluding alcoholism and drug addiction). Such a way to deliberate on political rights is caused by legal resolutions of civil law, that are under a discussion to be changed by a special Commission of Civil Law Codification. Commission has been created in a result of EHRC judgment in the case Alajos Kiss v. Hungary in 2010, and polish Constitutional Tribunal judgments. Method used: literature overview.

Supreme command of the President of the  Republic of Poland of the Armed Forces (selected subjects)

The article presents the status of the President of the Republic of Poland in the executive structure in Poland, taking into account the judgment of the Constitutional Tribunal on the dispute settlement between the Prime Minister and the President of the Republic of Poland (Kpt 2/08). The author also defines the Presidential power of „supreme command” over the Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland (Polish Constitution, Article 134) and the manner in which it is exercised it in times of peace (through the Minister of National Defence), as well as in times of war (through the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces). The article also shows selected specific powers of the President provided for in the statutory law.

Internal legislation constituted by the President of Poland

The article concerns the internal legislation adopted by the President. These acts should correspond to the characteristics set out in the Article 93 of the Polish Constitution. Under this provision, resolutions of the Council of Ministers and orders of the Prime Minister and ministers shall be of an internal character and shall bind only those organizational units subordinate to the organ which issues such an act. Orders shall only be issued on the basis of statute. They shall not serve as the basis for decisions taken in respect of citizens, legal persons and other subjects. Resolutions and orders shall be subject to scrutiny regarding their compliance with universally binding law. The president has few legal options to enact this type of legislation. The law-making power in relation to the head of state in a few cases is vested in the Constitution. This applies to the Presidential Chancellery, the National Security Council and the Cabinet Council. These cases are described in the article.

The constitutional position, organisation and competences  of the Constitutional Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan

Ever since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan has still been the state undergoing political transformations, in search of the way of changing their constitutional system. This also concerns particular elements of the system, such as the Constitutional Council, established by virtue of the Constitution of 2007. Earlier, however, during the period of 1993–1995, there functioned in Kazakhstan the Constitutional Court which was abolished. The article concerns the evolving position of the Constitutional Council, the legal status of the Council Member, principles of its organization and functioning. The competences of the Constitutional Council are of a mixed nature combining both the judicial and non-judicial competences. The Council remains in relatively intense, constitutional relations with the office of the President of the Republic. In formal and normative terms the Council of the Republic of Kazakhstan indicates certain similarities with the French Constitutional Council, which was meant to be its constitutional prototype.

Legal status and financing of political parties in Canada

Canada, as an Anglo-Saxon law system arose, with influences of the American legislation, it has not regulated the status of political parties on the constitutional level. Basis of the existence of political parties in Canada, is the Canadian Charter of rights and freedoms. Rules for the registration and financing of political parties in Canada was systematized in the second half of the 20th century. Currently, the activity of political parties shall be governed by the Canada Elections Act of 2004 and Financial Administration. As a general rule, political parties in Canada should be divided into registered and unregistered. In addition to a number of other rights, registered parties are entitled to special conditions of the financing of their activities. Canadian financing of political parties is the subject of discussion since the 1960s and is based on three pillars: donations from private individuals, funding from the state budget (CA. 2 Canadian dollars for each vote) and reimbursement of election campaign expenses (50% in the case of an overrun of the threshold of 2% of the vote on a national scale). It should be noted that supervision of the activities of political parties in Canada have the Chief Electoral Officer and Chairman of the Central Election Commission.

Constitutional disputes over authority. Selected theoretical problems

This article applies to a few selected theoretical problems associated with the concept of conflict of jurisdiction between the highest authorities of the state. Polish Constitution entrusts the settlement of such conflicts to the Constitutional Court. In the initial section describes the author the various methods known in the history of the settlement of such conflicts. Next, the author tries to present different definitions of competence disputes concerning the interpretation and application of the Constitution (constitutional conflict of jurisdiction) and some of their typologies, as well as the political aspects and causes. The final part of the article contains a brief reflection on the assessment from a theoretical point of view, the applicable regulation in Poland (constitutional and statutory), as well as the proposals contained in the draft of the new law on the Constitutional Court.

Hierarchization of the rights and freedoms of a person in light  of the constitutional regulation of the extraordinary measures

Analysis of the regulation of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland of April 2nd, 1997 leads to the conclusion that the provisions of its XIth chapter provide for a hierarchy of the rights and freedoms of a person during a period of introduction of the extraordinary measures. The Polish legislator linked the type of the applied extraordinary measure with the possibility of limitation of certain human rights – a solution not known in international documents. Hence, it established a hierarchy of the human rights during the period of introduction of the extraordinary measures with three levels of protection. The hierarchization of the rights and freedoms of a person in the constitutional provisions regarding the extraordinary measures is not crafted to determine the hierarchic supremacy of some rights above the others, but just a particular level of protection of some of them from the intervention of the state.

On the concept and meaning of the intangible cultural heritage  and phenomena of the contemporary world that threaten it

At the turn of the XXI century it has been realized that the elements of the intangible cultural heritage in fact determine the meaning, sense and values that are represented by elements of tangible heritage. The purpose of the hereby article is to determine what should be understood by „intangible heritage” and what phenomena pose a threat to this heritage. In 2003, the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage has been adopted by UNESCO, in which Convention the aforementioned concept had been defined and exemplary manifests of intangible heritage had been indicated. However, due to the fact that the awareness regarding the necessity of protection of the aforementioned heritage has appeared only recently and the Convention is the first binding act of international law that relates to intangible heritage, a necessity to thoroughly understand all aspects of the phenomenon arises. Thus, the article refers not only to particular provisions of the Convention. It presents also the standpoint of the representatives of doctrine and refers to studies available on the website of NID – an organization competent in regard to cultural heritage, the purpose of which is the realization of the provisions of the Convention on the territory of the Republic of Poland.

The president in a parliamentary system of government of the Republic of Bulgaria. Genesis – the political position – a constitutional responsibility

The text is an analysis of the Bulgarian legal regulations concerning the constitutional responsibility of the President. President of Bulgaria for committing a constitutional delict is responsible before the Constitutional Court. The proposal in this regard may submit a group of parliamentarians and parliament puts indictment. If the Constitutional Court decides the merits of allegations made in the indictment, the president shall be deposited with the office.

Procedure for amending the Constitution of the Fifth French Republic

The Constitution of the Republic of France is an act of force longer than other French constitutions. Since 1958, 24 amendments were carried out, which leads to the conclusion that the procedure should not change it to overly stringent. However, the French amendment of the constitution is implemented under clearly different from the legislative process, which makes treated as rigid. This allows to assume that the authors of the Constitution of the Fifth Republic has managed to create a fundamental law stabilizing the state system, but allowing its evolution under the influence of changing realities.This study is an analysis of the procedure for amending the Constitution of the French Republic in order to determine what legal structures used to achieve this effect.

A few questions concerning the discharge

The institution of discharge is one of numerous instruments available to the Sejm in order to exercise the control function regarding the activities of the Council of Ministers. It is an institution with historic lineage, whose origins are closely connected with the formation of the parliamentary system on the Polish soil. The importance of the discharge and the control process associated with it is noticeable in its regularity, repeatability, but also in that it enables detection of irregularities. Conclusions drawn from this fact may lead to the elimination of such irregularities in the future budget legislation. However, the analysis of solutions devoted to the institution of discharge conducted in the normative plane and by means of the parliamentary practice assessment indicates deficiencies and the encumbrance of this institution, such as the excessive politicization of control procedures, as well as lack of clear consequences arising from resolution through which the Sejm can refuse to grant the Council of Ministers the discharge.

Constitutional forms of the nation’s activity in exercise of public authority

Constitutional forms of the nation’s activity in the process of executing public authority The aim of the paper is to present a complete and consistent classification of forms of activity of the nation as the collective subject of sovereign authority in the process of exercising public authority stipulated in the Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 2nd April 1997. The proposed typology of these forms is based on the uniform criterion – the legal effect of the formulated will of the community. Using this criterion leads to isolating two main dimensions of the above-mentioned activity of the nation. In the first of them, the nation acts as the actual sovereign and consequently, their acts of will have an absolutely decisive character. This occurs when – in accordance with Article 4 section 2 of the Constitution – the nation „exercises such power directly or through their representatives”, which means within the framework of so-called representative democracy (particularly electing their representatives and calling the previous mandataries to account for their achievements in the finishing term of office by means of the next election, and in the case of territorial selfgovernment bodies, also by means of the institution of revocability), or „directly” (by way of a referendum). All the other forms of social activity provided for in the Constitution of the Republic of Poland and otherwise involve the cooperation of citizens and groups of citizens in executing power by public authority bodies, both representative and non-representative ones. Due to their consultative power or merely inspirational character, they can be collectively referred to as „expressing opinions and providing inspiration in the matter of exercising public authority”.

According to the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan of 30 August 1995, Kazakhstan has a presidential form of government. The executive power in Kazakhstan has two branches, i.e. it consists of the head of state – the President of the Republic – who is elected for the period of seven years in general, equal, direct and secret elections, and of the government, which is accountable to the President and the Parliament. On the basis of the provisions of chapter 12 of the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan of 28 January 1993, the unicameral parliament called the „Supreme Council” was the only representative and legislative body of the Republic. Two years later, in the referendum held in August 1995, citizens voted for the establishment of a bicameral parliament. The work and activity of the legislative branch, its structure and powers, is regulated by the Constitution of the Republic of Kazakhstan, The Constitutional Law № 2529 of 16 October 1996 entitled On the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Status of Its Deputies as well as other acts, such as parliamentary rules of procedure of both chambers or the Regulations of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan adopted by both chambers of the Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan at their joint session As stipulated in art. 49 of the Constitution, the bicameral Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the highest representative body of the Republic performing legislative functions. The Parliament of the Republic of Kazakhstan is a classic example of a passive legislature, which is dominated by the president, the presidential political party, and which has a low level of autonomy. To sum up, it must be noted that parliaments are undoubtedly institutions which should be considered as the bodies conducive to the stability of a political system. According to P. Norton and D.M. Olson, such stability can be achieved when there is the balance of legitimisation within the system.on 20 May 1996. 1

The principle of subsidiarity as a determinant  of a law-making role of local government

The article concerns the regulation of the local legislation. Local government should create legislative acts with the principle of subsidiarity and decentralization. These principles – resulting from the Constitution and acts of international law – should be taken into account when structuring the adoption of the local law. Existing regulations do not fully implement these principles. Therefore, there are a few need for legislative changes that will lead to the full implementation of the principle of subsidiarity. Currently, the local government authorities have too little freedom in making local law. It is limited by the legislative authority, which acts always defines the scope of freedom. This should be changed to increase the competence of the local government, which to a greater extent will realize the needs of the local community.

Normative collective memory in preambles  to constitution of post-communist states

Preambles are parts of constitutions, which are visibly neglected in legal theory and constitutional law. They are defined as solemn introductions to constitutions, which indicate the sovereign, historical and political context of increasing the new constitutional order, main aims and principles – the foundation of constitution. Such elements are also commonly apparent in most of post-communist constitutions of European states. The article shows the integrative function of these preambles, achieved by using clauses creating and maintaining the identity of political community. The clauses with this function are identified as: statements regarding national and cultural heritage and fundamental principles of community. The article investigates these elements in preambles texts of post-communist constitutions and indicates their role as tending to create the national identity.

Acts under the law in the constitutional order of  Polish tradition and modernity

The issue of the place and role of the acts under the Act in order political system is important in the study of constitutional law, both in terms of the structure of the system of sources of law and system of government. The question of the issue by the acts of the executive authorities of universally binding law of the power of the law is in fact closely linked to the principle of separation of powers, namely the formula rationalization of law-making in a system of parliamentary government. Evidence of this act, that the greatest development of this type of legislation came in the first half of the twentieth century, acting in response to a profound crisis of parliamentarism functional in Europe. Acts under the Act are also a permanent place in the Polish political tradition. Introduced for the first time under the so-called novel in August of 1926, in various forms and with varying intensity continuously operate in the Polish system of sources of law until 1989. She received them the Small Constitution of 1992, as amended regulations with the force of law, issued by the Council of Ministers on the basis of parliamentary authority. The Constitution of 2 April 1997 reduced the role and importance of regulations with the force of law, reducing the possibility of their issuance by the President only for exceptional circumstances relating to the imposition of martial law and the inability to act of the Sejm. Because of the perceived need to rationalize more and more Polish law-making, it is appropriate to consider the possibility of widening the scope of application of the Regulations with the force of law in the Polish constitutional order, by granting the government the power to issue them under parliamentary authority, so that the formula adjusted relative to solutions that She received Small Constitution of 1992.

Selected issues in international activities of the subjects  of the Russian Federation

The specificity of the federal state lies in the need for countries within it a significant degree of autonomy. It includes often – as is the case with the Russian Federation – competence in maintaining international relations by federal entities. Permissions in this field are distracted: partly regulate these federal laws, acts partly constituted by the executive in June of individual entities. This leads to considerable variation in both the categories of participants in various kinds of international relations, as well as the range of activities available to the analyzed competence.

Law on papal elections after the revision of 2007

The purpose of this article is to analyse the papal election law, especially in regard to its amendment in 2007. Papal election procedure is one of the oldest codified rules related to election in public institutions, which take effect till nowadays. The article presents the development of rules related to the election of the pope since the early Christian period till now. Conducted analysis proves that relevant rules related to the papal election remain unchanged: the only electors are cardinals, qualified majority of votes is required in order to successfully elect the pope, voting is performed in isolation from the outer world and is secret. The article thoroughly analyses the rules of voting system imposed by the apostolic constitution Universi Dominici gregis issued by Pope Jean Paul II in 1996, in particular a possibility of the exemption from the traditional qualified majority rule, namely choosing the pope by application of absolute majority voting when the qualified majority voting does not result in an election. Another part of the article is devoted to the amendment of regulations related to the voting system issued by Pope Benedict XVI in 2007. Closing part of the article are remarks concerning 2013 amendment in the face of forthcoming conclave related to the resignation of Pope Benedict XVI.

Some remarks on the Act on Political Parties

The Act of 27th June 1997 on Political Parties has its own characteristics. While the rules for the financing of these entities are regulated in detail, however, other issues are regulated relatively general in that Act. The a author draws attention to the problems that arise in this context. One of that problems is the lack of well-defined boundaries between political parties and associations, which is particularly evident in relation to groups of local character. Besides, it is also worth emphasizing that participation in elections is not, in the light of Polish law, the determinant, which could constitute such a distinction. No need for removal from the register of political parties, which are permanently not participate in the procedures for the election is the best proof. In addition, an important issue is also the inability to associate in political parties people who do not have Polish citizenship. It is extremely important in the context of electoral rights of the people, who are the EU citizens and who are living in the territory of the Republic of Poland.

Co-princes or co-principes? Some remarks on the status of the  President of France and the Bishop of Urgell as head of the state  in the context of the political system of Andorra

The constitutional system of Andorra is not a popular subject of study of science either in Poland or abroad. In Poland, after 1993 (the year the adoption of the current constitution) were published only a few articles or fragments of larger studies on this topic. As a result, the vast majority of these studies have mainly reporting character. Many interesting issues have been mentioned only in footnotes. Among them: the question of the status of specific, Andorran head of state and (resulting) the correct indication of the form of Andorran state. Co-principes are translated into Polish as „co-princes”. It consequently, automatically determined Andorra as a „principality”, ie the state of monarchical system, and even a constitutional monarchy . This should be considered , at least as controversial. The author formulates two hypotheses and subjected them to verify. Firstly – Andorra is a principate (not a principality) – a mixed form of political system combines elements of monarchy and republic, outweigh the latter, in addition to the relics of the former. Head of State in principate should be referred to as „princeps”, and in the case of Andorra, specifically: co-princeps. In this way we will avoid misleading comparisons with „a prince”, as monarchical, hereditary head of state. Secondly – despite the adoption of a modern constitution, there are remaining relics of feudal times in the political system of Andorra, resulting from the former status of „condominium”. This is particularly evident in the form of the Andorran heads of state institution. It also gives a partial capacity to influence decisions of the co-principes by their home country’s authorities.

The Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation  as an organ of the financial and budgetary control

The subject of the present text is the Accounts Chamber as an organ of the financial and budgetary control. The paper analyzes its place in the system of organs of public authority and its independence as well as the resulting consequences for the efficiency of the work of the Accounts Chamber. The paper formulates the thesis that the Accounts Chamber is the key instrument of parliamentary control in the sphere of financial and budgetary issues which enables both chambers of the Federal Assembly to effectively realize the tasks they are entrusted with.

Participation of the President of the Republic of Lithuania in the legislation

The paper describes the participation of the president of the Republic of Lithuania in the legislative procedure, in relation to the Constitution in force adopted by the referendum on October 25th, 1992. The paper also presents the president’s participation regarding former constitutional regulations, starting from restoration of Lithuania’s independence on February 16th, 1918. This is presented mainly as an introduction and in significantly limited scope. The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania stipulates that the President participates in establishing law as early as at the stage of the legislative initiative, and also at the promulgation of the acts which is related to the obligation to sign and promulgate the act, respectively to refer it back to the Seimas in order to have it reconsidered (a veto). Particular constitutional regulations related to those institutions, and also the doubts that may arise or have arisen due to those laws, have been presented in this paper. The regulations of other acts and laws in force have been also described in the paper regarding determining the rights that the President may exercise in relation to his or her competences in legislative procedure. Due to the separateness of the basic law regulations, the issues related to the President’s participation in the change or amendment of the Constitution have been discussed severally.

Linguistic rights of national minorities in Lithuania – aspects of the  situation of polish national minority (in the context of international  national minorities rights protection standards)

This article provides the review of the linguistic rights of national minorities in the practical aspects of the situation of polish national minority. The paper discusses the essential rights for the preservation of national identity: the right to use the language of national minority in communication with local authorities and in public, in the electoral process, in topographic indications, as well as the right to write names and surnames in the language of national minority. These rights are presented in the context of constitutional doctrine of state language protection, as it largely affects the content of mentioned rights of national minorities.

Original solutions of government systems  on the example of the Order of Malta

The article presents governmental system of Order of Malta with methodology applying to description and analyzing the system of state. Author assumes that the Order of Malta is an example of confessional monastic state with features specific for a state like structure of powers, division of powers and other characteristic for republican type of a state.