Articles 2021

Social Policy Programme “The Family 500+” – Assumptions, Results, and Costs of Functioning: Is It Worth?

  • Author: Anna Owczarczyk
  • Institution: Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1363-2296
  • Published online: 27 May 2021
  • Final submission: 5 May 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 16
  • Pages: 11-26
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202102
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202102.pdf

The unfavorable demographic situation and the falling number of births resulted in an increased interest among Polish politicians in introducing tools to social policy that would reverse this negative trend. Implemented to social policy by Prawo i Sprawiedliwość Party in 2016, the “Family 500+” benefit has become such a tool. According to the government’s intention, this financial aid for families with children aims to reverse the decline in the number of births observed for many years and reduce the scale of poverty among families with the most complex financial situation. After several years of the “Family 500+” Program in force, it is difficult to clearly define whether the goals were achieved and whether the expenses for financing the program were adequate to the results. The aim of the article is an attempt at the assessment of the functioning of the Family 500+ Programme. Both the statutory assumptions of the programme, the costs of its functioning, and its results so far were analyzed. The central part of the analysis covered the period 2016–2019.

pro-natal policy 500+ Programme poverty social policy

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Manifestations of Chinese Development Aid and Its Hidden Meanings

  • Author: Anna Kobierecka
  • Institution: University of Łódź (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2492-6452
  • Published online: 31 May 2021
  • Final submission: 8 February 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 15
  • Pages: 9-23
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202101
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202101.pdf

The People’s Republic of China is one of the states focusing intensively on building its soft power and shaping its international image. However, China’s image is still negative and primarily based on stereotypes. In recent years, this country is willing to change such perceptions and present itself as an efficient, intensively developing, capable country that is much more than just a global production plant. The article aims to review China’s different manifestations of development aid regarding changing this type of public diplomacy and its meaning to the Chinese government. Is it only motivated by good intentions, or maybe its goal is to only provide an advantage to China? It is evident that owing to significant development, China needs to expand its economic contacts. However, the tested hypothesis states that behind Chinese development aid, political motivation is hidden as well. The research is based on content analysis of official documents and Foreign Ministry’s statements referring to development aid.

development aid People’s Republic of China soft power public diplomacy China

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Space Traffic Management (STM) – Legal Aspects

  • Author: Małgorzata Polkowska
  • Institution: War Studies Academy (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6633-2222
  • Published online: 10 June 2021
  • Final submission: 9 September 2020
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 11
  • Pages: 159-169
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202103
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202103.pdf

Space Traffic Management (STM) is a new concept referring to space activities. The highest priority is the safety and security of outer space and all conducted operations. There is no definition of STM. There is an urgent need to regulate STM providing safety and security regulations at the international, regional, and national levels. Because there is no STM definition, the regulator might use the example of existing regulations of the International Civil Aviation Organization on Air Traffic Management (ATM). European EUSST is a good example of being a “precursor” of STM. However, many questions are still open regarding specific regulations needed to create an STM system, such as at which level they should be made: globally, regionally, or nationally.

national legislation code of conduct space management space debris SSA

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The Emotional Backdrop of Legal Discourses in South China Sea Disputes

  • Author: Eric Pomès
  • Institution: Vendée Catholic University (ICES) (France)
  • Author: Jean-Marc Coicaud
  • Institution: Rutgers University, State University of New Jersey (USA)
  • Published online: 10 June 2021
  • Final submission: 1 August 2020
  • Printed issue: December 2021
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  • Page no: 18
  • Pages: 25-42
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202104
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202104.pdf

The China Sea connects as many coastal states as it divides due to the economic and strategic challenges it represents. It also embodies an area of confrontations between the Great American and Chinese strategies. Identifying with precision the differences that arise requires an interest in the symbolic dimensions that surround them. This angle of analysis provides an opportunity to observe the functioning of international law and inevitably leads to a discussion of the emerging international order. The literature on the situation in the China Sea abounds. The paper’s singularity is to approach it under the prism of international law as revealing the psychology of an actor. To carry out this research, the authors use a pragmatic and critical approach to international law. The thesis defended shows that, contrary to a positivist and judicial approach to international law, elements exogenous to the law, the history, and the psychology of an actor, influence the interpretation of existing norms.

elements exogenous to the law liberal/illiberal hegemony interpretations territorial disputes South China Sea emotions international law

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Democratic Backsliding in Poland on Example Drafts Amendments in Electoral Code During the COVID-19 Pandemic

  • Author: Maciej Skrzypek
  • Institution: Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8018-1854
  • Published online: 10 June 2021
  • Final submission: 9 September 2020
  • Printed issue: December 2021
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  • Page no: 14
  • Pages: 37-50
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202105
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202105.pdf

The COVID-19 pandemic occurred in Poland during the campaign before the presidential election scheduled for May 10. This non-military threat changed the election campaign’s dynamics, leading to an unprecedented failure to hold elections and postponing them. Around the changes in the election procedure, many constitutionalists and political scientists voiced their inconsistency with the law and the provisions of the Constitutional Tribunal. Both the proposed provisions and the manner of their organization raised objections. The article classifies these changes as manifestations of democratic backsliding, weakening democratic institutions and leading to a decline in the quality of democracy. The research goal is to analyze the records in the selected source material and relate them to the selected theoretical category (democratic backsliding). In the course of the research, the following hypothesis is verified: in the face of the COVID-19 epidemic in Poland, attempts by the ruling elite to change the provisions related to organizing the presidential elections scheduled for May 10 are an example of democratic backsliding, which, by weakening democratic institutions, has threatened the constitutional provisions and the essence of the democratic system.

amendments in Electoral Code presidential elections in Poland democratic backsliding in Poland

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The Legislative Sejm of the RP (1919–1922)

  • Author: Lech Wyszczelski
  • Institution: War Studies Academy (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2063-4281
  • Published online: 15 June 2021
  • Final submission: 7 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 17
  • Pages: 181-184
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202106
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202106.pdf

Book Review: Zbigniew Girzyński, Jarosław Kłaczkow, Jan Żaryn (Eds.), Fundamenty Niepodległości. Sejm Ustawodawczy (1919–1922), Toruń 2020, pp. 574.

The Teacher and the Idea of Society 5.0 – Initial Diagnosis of the Problem

  • Author: Beata Pituła
  • Institution: Silesian University of Technology (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7691-3821
  • Published online: 17 June 2021
  • Final submission: 5 May 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 17
  • Pages: 149-165
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202107
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202107.pdf

The primary aim of this article is to present the results and research findings of a pilot study on teachers’ attitudes manifested toward the idea of society 5.0. The study is a part of one of the priority research areas of the Silesian University of Technology – Processes automation and Industry 4.0. in terms of the socio-cultural and methodological implications of Industry 4.0. Eighty-four teachers participated in the research and completed the questionnaire electronically. The research bores the characteristics of a preliminary diagnosis of the problem. Hence, the collected empirical material does not allow the formulation of methodologically valid conclusions. However, it may constitute a “voice in the discussion” on the preparation of teachers for the inevitable change of the role of the school and the teacher in the new society.

society 5.0 attitude teacher

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The Boundaries of Jerusalem

  • Author: Gideon Biger
  • Institution: Tel Aviv University (Israel)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6038-7129
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 25 October 2020
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 12
  • Pages: 77-88
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202108
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202108.pdf

Earlier this year, President Donald Trump presented his Peace Plan for Israel and the Palestinians. The plan also dealt with the future boundaries of Jerusalem. Jerusalem is the only city ruled by a sovereign regime, the State of Israel, which declared Jerusalem as its Capital city and draw its boundary lines. Except for the US, the status and boundaries of Jerusalem are not accepted by any other international or national entity. Only the United States, which accepts Jerusalem as the capital city of Israel, agreed to accept its Israeli declared boundaries. Jerusalem’s status and boundaries stand at the core of the dispute between Israel and the Palestinian Authority, which wishes to restore the pre-1967 line. The city of Jerusalem was divided during the years 1948-1967 between Israel and Jordan. The Palestinian Authority thus calls for a separation of Jerusalem between two independent states. Today, Jerusalem has an urban boundary that serves partly as a separating line between Israel and the Palestinian Autonomy, but most countries do not accept the present boundaries, and its future permanent line and status are far from establishing. Jerusalem is a unique city. This article presents a brief history that should help understanding its uniqueness.

Peace and Prosperity international boundary urban boundary Holy City annexation Jerusalem

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Why Did Italian Democracy Become Vulnerable? Theorizing the Change from Neo- to Quasi-Militant Democracy

  • Author: Joanna Rak
  • Institution: Adam Mickiewicz University (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0505-3684
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 2 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 11
  • Pages: 51-61
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202109
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202109.pdf

Embedded in scholarship on militant democracy, this research aims to explain how Italian legislation was positioned to militant democratic measures and how this changed over time. Drawing on the qualitative source analysis and the explanatory frameworks of democratic vulnerability tests two competing theory-grounded assumptions. While the first one assumes that Italian democracy became vulnerable when traditional militant democracy instruments were outmoded, the second considers the misuse or abandonment of those means with social consent as the source of vulnerability. The crisis-induced socioeconomic inequality and uncertainty weakened the Italian political nation. As a result, the latter supported populists in return for a promise of political change. The anti-democratic legal means employed to extend power competencies and prevent the exchange of ruling parties were the way to and the costs of the expected political change. At the same time, the political nation became unable to self-organize to strengthen democracy self-defense. As a result, Italians co-produced a quasi-militant democracy that turned vulnerable because militant democracy measures were misused or not used with the consent of Italians that relinquished their political subjectivity in favor of the Northern League and the Five Star Movement.

political nation the Five Star Movement the Northern League anti-democratic restrictions contentious politics quasi-militant democracy neo-militant democracy Italy

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Beyond “Academic Diplomacy”

  • Author: Michał Lubina
  • Institution: Jagiellonian University (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3342-1763
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 17 July 2020
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 3
  • Pages: 173-175
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202110
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202110.pdf

Book Review: Chosein Yamahata, Sueo Sudo, Takashi Matsugi (Eds.), Rights and Security in India, Myanmar, and Thailand, Singapore 2020.

Do IT Tools Help Develop Community Policing? Lessons Learned from the Implementation of The National Security Threat Map in Poland

  • Author: Robert Gawłowski
  • Institution: WSB University in Toruń (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3419-7679
  • Author: Mariusz Kubiak
  • Institution: Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6757-5509
  • Author: Juliusz Piwowarski
  • Institution: The University of Public and Individual Security “Apeiron” (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9196-1194
  • Author: Dariusz Minkiewicz
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0000-0000-0001
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 30 May 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 17
  • Pages: 91-107
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202111
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202111.pdf

In many countries, the police, as a part of public administration, have witnessed many changes during the last few years. This article explores the process of the reform of the Polish police force, which took place between 2015 and 2017. Doing so examines in detail the process of implementing an IT tool – The National Security Threat Map – by paying particular attention to the mechanism of engaging external stakeholders. This study is conceptual but empirically focused. The paper posits that, despite the hierarchical nature of the police administration structure, it is possible to build an engagement of external stakeholders.

IT tolls local security community policing public policy

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Cybersecurity Politics – Conceptualization of the Idea

  • Author: Marek Górka
  • Institution: Koszalin University of Technology (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6964-1581
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 30 April 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 19
  • Pages: 71-89
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202112
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202112.pdf

The cybersecurity issue discussed in the paper is seen from the perspective of political science with the indication that the subject under discussion concerns the multifaceted nature of the state’s actions, which consists of political, economic, social, and cultural factors. At the same time, the work also intends to prove that cybersecurity is not only a domain of technology because it is the mentioned aspects that shape the conditions of stable development of the state and its citizens in a space dominated by cyber technology in a much more decisive way. Given the growing role of cybertechnology in almost all areas of human life, its importance also forces and inspires political science to question the shape and model of modern policy, which is significantly evolving under the influence of new technologies. On the one hand, emerging cyber threats reveal the weakness of the state and the dependence of state institutions on cybertechnologies, but on the other hand, existing cyber incidents may also motivate many governments to take action to increase the level of cybersecurity.

cybersecurity policy cybersecurity political theory international relations

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Putting the Terror Management Theory to Work: Exploration and Explanation

  • Author: Joanna Rak
  • Institution: Adam Mickiewicz University (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0505-3684
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 28 April 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 4
  • Pages: 177-180
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202114
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202114.pdf

Book review: Bartosz Bolechów, Gdy światło się mroczy: Światopogląd Państwa Islamskiego w perspektywie teorii opanowywania trwogi, Toruń 2020, pp. 276.

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African Great Lakes Region: Governance and Politics

  • Author: Wioleta Gierszewska
  • Institution: University of Gdańsk (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5024-9379
  • Author: Benjamin Mudaheranwa
  • Institution: Christian University of Rwanda (Rwanda)
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 7 July 2020
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 10
  • Pages: 109-118
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202115
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202115.pdf

This article aims to indicate the sources of problems in the field of governance and politics in the African Great Lakes Region. The countries of this region play an essential role in the global socio-political and economic system. Their development is hampered by numerous external and internal conflicts resulting from both the historical and contemporary problems of the countries. Colonialism had a major impact on the development of African countries. It manifested itself, among other things, in the spread of political domination. Adopting state management patterns from European culture and attempt to transplant them on African ground without understanding local cultural conditions contributed too much post-colonial fresh and modern conflict. Examples of this are failures to establish liberal democracy and its crises in the African Great Lakes Region.

African Polities African crisis African Great Lakes region politics democracy elections governance

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Science in the Age of Big Data

  • Author: Andrzej Kiepas
  • Institution: Silesian University of Technology (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5279-5288
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 24 January 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 4
  • Pages: 169-172
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202113
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202113.pdf

Book Review: Terje Tüür-Fröhlich, Non-trivial Effects of Trivial Errors in Scientific Communication and Evaluation. Schriften zur Informationswissenschaft Band 69. Herausgegeben vom Hochschulverband für Informationswissenschaft (HI) e.V., Glückstadt 2016.

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Competition for High Politics in Cyberspace: Technological Conflicts Between China and the USA

  • Author: Karina Verónica Val Sánchez
  • Institution: Selcuk University-Konya (Turkey)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7036-3523
  • Author: Nezir Akyesilmen
  • Institution: Selcuk University-Konya (Turkey)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8184-5280
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 15 December 2020
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 27
  • Pages: 43-69
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202116
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202116.pdf

This paper highlighted the use of cyberspace as a conflict zone by the US and China, focusing on competition in various technological spheres, including cyberespionage, military technology, and Artificial Intelligence (AI). The main purpose of this study was to depict how great powers manipulate the cyber domain for their high political objectives through US-China rivalry. The research has been carried out mainly via literature review, discourse analysis, and relevant statistics. Consistent with previous literature and global public perception, the outcome has shown that both states are using cyberspace as a new domain for completion in trade, technology, and military purposes. Cyberespionage, the militarization of cyberspace, and AI have been the main conflict areas between these two global competitors in the last decade.

cyberespionage militarization of cyberspace artificial intelligence USA China

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Maritime Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) from the French Perspective

  • Author: Joanna Siekiera
  • Institution: University of Bergen (Norway)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0125-9121
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 12 March 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 11
  • Pages: 147-157
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202117
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202117.pdf

Sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea became a key topic for the negotiations since the 2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro. Ocean change is now the most significant threat facing humanity, especially those living in coastal areas. The possible and already observed loss of territory, and thus sovereignty of the submerged states, is not the only legal consequence of ocean change happening now, in the 21st century. Another factor is the downsizing of Exclusive Economic Zones, which implies political tensions between the neighboring countries, both sovereign and dependent territories of the former colonial powers. France is present in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean via its overseas collectivities. Thus, instead of being at the 45th position in the world’s ranking of the ocean powers, the Republic of France comes in the second position, straight after the United States of America. This high and indeed precious position, both geostrategically and economically, affects its views toward the United Nations negotiations process on biological diversity beyond national jurisdiction.

BBNJ maritime biodiversity ocean maritime biodiversity France

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Parliamentary Parties and the Anti-Abortion Laws in Poland (1991–2019)

  • Author: Krzysztof Kowalczyk
  • Institution: University of Szczecin (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5910-4854
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 11 May 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 9
  • Pages: 27-35
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202118
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202118.pdf

This article aims to analyze the approach of Polish parliamentary parties to the anti-abortion legislation in 1991-2019 on the level of their ideological programmes. Classification of political parties concerning their ideological families has been proposed. Next, the article presents a typology based on the party’s attitude to the discussed problem, distinguishing the following categories of parties: the proponents of apportioning, the opponents of abortion, heterogeneous parties, and parties that do not express an opinion on this issue.

parliamentary parties legislation abortion Poland

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The Role of Islam in Indonesian Foreign Policy: A Case of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono Introduction

  • Author: Aisyah Mumary Songbatumis
  • Institution: Vistula University (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4144-2484
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 8 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 23
  • Pages: 89-111
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202119
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202119.pdf

As Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono won the 2004 presidential election, it marked the end of Indonesia’s democratic transition era and experienced a dynamic change in foreign policy. The new international identity that viewed Islam as an asset was introduced by SBY, emphasizing the importance of moderate Islam as opposing extremism. The phenomenon of Islamic influence was not only the result of democratic consolidation domestically but also external factors such as the aftermath of 9/11 that portrayed Muslims as potential terrorists. For this reason, Indonesian foreign policy attempted to diminish such misconceptions and tried to be a peacemaker or a mediator in Muslim-related issues globally. To contextualize the analysis, the study focuses on the influence of Islam in Indonesian foreign policy towards the Palestinian-Israeli conflict and Pakistan. The mutual aspirations on the Palestinian statehood shared by both the government and the Muslim elements in society could be found, while religious sentiments were noticeable, as shown by the Muslim groups. In contrast, the influence of Islam in Indonesia-Pakistan relations, especially regarding the Kashmir dispute, was absent due to the difference in views of the government and the Muslim groups and constraining factors, including Indonesia’s national interest priority.

Islam in foreign policy Indonesian foreign policy political Islam national interest democracy

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The Image of Chechen Separatists in the Polish Media

  • Author: Kamil Pietrasik
  • Institution: Asia-Pacific Society (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8579-0659
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 8 February 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 3
  • Pages: 173-175
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202120
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202120.pdf

Book review: Alicja Stańco-Wawrzyńska, Cel: walka. Obraz terroryzmu w polskich dziennikach, Adam Marszałek Publishing House, Torun 2017, pp. 153.

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Latvia as the Area of Correlated Russian “Hard Power” and “Soft Power” Operations

  • Author: Gabriel Nowacki
  • Institution: Military University of Technology (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5357-8824
  • Published online: 21 June 2021
  • Final submission: 14 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 20
  • Pages: 113-132
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202121
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202121.pdf

This work presents the methodology of the Russian impact on Latvia after 1991. It defines and specifies the scope of methods concerning both the hard and soft power in international relations in the 21st century, particularly the ones used to implement the Russian Federation’s foreign policy. The implemented strategies and impact models are described. The work is also focused on certain indicators used in global rankings by experts worldwide. In the 21st century, it is no longer enough to employ the hard power methods as it is advisable to use the soft power ones, which may bring about much better results than the hard ones.

soft impact (soft power) hard impact (hard power) international security Russia

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Mass Migration as a Hybrid Threat? – A Legal Perspective

  • Author: Sascha-Dominik Dov Bachmann
  • Institution: Canberra Law School (Australia)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8742-0766
  • Author: Anthony Paphiti
  • Institution: Former officer with the UK Army Legal Services (United Kingdom)
  • Published online: 30 June 2021
  • Final submission: 16 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 27
  • Pages: 119-145
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202122
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202122.pdf

Migration as a weapon sounds like a policy statement by resurgent nationalistic parties (and governments) in the West. However, politics and the human cost aside, what if an adversary (both state and non-state actor) does exploit the current global crisis of mass migration due to globalization, war, and political unrest? This article will look at the ongoing mass migration to the European Union within the wider security context of the so-called hybrid threats and/or ‘grey zone’ tactics. It looks at the various legal categories of migration as how the law can be weaponized as so-called ‘lawfare’ to undermine the existing legal frameworks distinguishing between legal and illegal migration. The authors recognize the possibility that this article will be used as an argument by the political actors involved for their nationalistic and anti-migration politics and policies. Yet, we believe that the potential of abusing the current vacuum for political gains along ideological party lines makes it necessary to provide a wider legal-security focused perspective on mass migration.

hybrid threat threat migrants Law refugees migration

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On Security in Cyberspace

  • Author: Lech Wyszczelski
  • Institution: War Studies Academy (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2063-4281
  • Published online: 30 June 2021
  • Final submission: 12 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 3
  • Pages: 177-179
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202123
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202123.pdf

Book Review: Magdalena Molendowska, Rafał Miernik (Eds.), Bezpieczeństwo w cyberprzestrzeni. Wybrane zagadnienia, Toruń 2020, pp. 328

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Integrated Space Situational Awareness Systems: SDA and SSA – Advantages and Limitations

  • Author: Małgorzata Polkowska
  • Institution: War Studies Academy (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6633-2222
  • Published online: 30 June 2021
  • Final submission: 12 March 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 16
  • Pages: 133-148
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202124
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202124.pdf

SDA (Space Domain Awareness) and SSA (Space Situational Awareness – SSA) have been defined as comprehensive knowledge of space objects and the ability to track, understand, and predict their future location. The purpose of the article is to present SSA initiatives to protect space systems, which are now recognized as fundamental assets of the sustainable development of each country. The destruction of even a part of the space infrastructure can have severe consequences for the security of citizens and economic activity. These systems assume the combination of all data obtained by various entities operating in space and Earth to create a common database. The SSA system was created based on the US military programme SDA (Space Domain Awareness); SSA and SDA are almost similar, but SDA is a new term replacing SSA, which existed previously. SDA is a better and improved SSA. Increasingly, the SSA programme is part of national and EU space strategies, but it is not yet possible to include it in international space law.

security Outer Space satellites SDA/SSA observation programmes

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Migration and Foreign Aid as Factors Restraining Regional Cooperation in the South Pacific

  • Author: Joanna Siekiera
  • Institution: University of Bergen (Norway)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0125-9121
  • Published online: 30 June 2021
  • Final submission: 12 March 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 9
  • Pages: 19-27
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202125
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202125_2.pdf

Cooperation in the South Pacific region is unique due to the characteristics of its participants. Following the period of decolonization (1962-1980), countries in Oceania have radically changed. Achieving independence gave those nations international legal personality, yet complete independence from their former colonial powers. The following consequence was gaining an opportunity to draft, adopt and execute own laws in national and foreign policy. PICT (Pacific island countries and territories) have been expanding connections, political and trade ones, within the region since the 1960s when permanent migration of islanders and intra-regional transactions began. Migrations along with foreign aid are considered as the distinctive characteristics of the Pacific Ocean basin. Since the 1980s, the regional integration in Oceania, through establishing regional groupings and increasing the regional trade agreements number, took on pace and scope. The MIRAB synthetic measure (migration, remittances, aid, bureaucracy) has been used in analyzing the Oceania developing microeconomies. Last but not least, migration and foreign aid have been retaining the region from a deeper and more effective stage of regionalism.

foreign aid South Pacific Regional Cooperation Pacific Oceania migration

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Public Security and Public Order – Conceptual and Institutional Scope

  • Author: Janusz Gierszewski
  • Institution: Pomeranian Academy in Słupsk (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8420-7900
  • Author: Andrzej Pieczywok
  • Institution: Kazimierz Wielki University in Bydgoszcz (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4531-0630
  • Published online: 30 June 2021
  • Final submission: 18 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 14
  • Pages: 63-76
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202126
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202126.pdf

The publication aims to analyze public security and public order in conceptual and institutional terms as an analytical category of security sciences. The legislator defines neither public security nor public order. So far, they have been treated mainly as categories of administrative law. It is therefore important to assign them analytical content in the new scientific discipline. The research results allowed for the presentation of the thesis that public security and public order are mainly connected with protection against pathological phenomena occurring in the public space, which are minimized by institutions established to ensure it. These categories should constitute the research field (subject) of the security sciences. The research problem formulated in the form of the question: How are public security and public order treated in definitional and institutional terms? The problem was solved based on a critical analysis of the literature. The paper uses theoretical research methods, including analysis of literature and phenomena occurring in society and inference – as a cognitive factor of the subject of analysis. A critical analysis of the literature on this issue played a large role in the cognitive process.

research subject public security and public order security sciences

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COVID-19 as a Green Light for the Regeneration of ISIS’ Forces in North-East Syria

  • Author: Oskar Schaefer
  • Institution: Leiden University (Netherlands)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1504-8977
  • Published online: 30 June 2021
  • Final submission: 26 May 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 6
  • Pages: 90-95
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202127
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202127_7.pdf

Following the fall of the so-called Islamic State in March 2019, tens of thousands of its fighters, along with their wives and children, were captured and detained in facilities controlled by Syrian Democratic Forces in northeast Syria. Many of which were European. Based on the information provided by scientific institutes and journalists, the outbreak of the Covid-19 pandemic had had a significant impact on the functioning of those facilities. Not only did it aggravate an already severe humanitarian crisis, pushing the detainees to reinforce their attempts of escaping and rioting against the guards, but it also lowered the security level in the controlled facilities, allowing a flourishing of criminal activities. Furthermore, the detainment of ISIS followers turned into a political game between the Kurdish coalition and the United States. The global health crisis put to the test the strategy of many Western governments of keeping European ISIS fighters in the Middle East while pressuring the international community to rethink its approach towards this crescent problem.

Syrian Democratic Forces foreign terrorist fighters humanitarian crisis COVID-19 pandemic Islamic State

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What Is Drawing Xi’s China and Lukashenko’s Belarus Closer?

  • Author: Solomiya Kharchuk
  • Institution: University of Wrocław (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2746-0897
  • Published online: 30 June 2021
  • Final submission: 16 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 25
  • Pages: 67-90
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202128
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202128.pdf

What are the primary drivers of the relationship between Xi’s China and Lukashenko’s Belarus? The present research paper uses the historical process-tracing method to provide an answer to this question. Furthermore, it uses quantitative data analysis regarding the economic intercourse between Belarus and China. It examines whether China’s opposition regarding the unipolar American-led world order and Belarus’s security concerns are the primary drivers of the relationship between Minsk and Beijing. The present article concludes that the congruence of beliefs and Minsk’s desire to ensure survival are drawing the two countries closer together. China’s new strategy encompasses Beijing’s increasing participation in world affairs. China opposes the world order led by a single hegemon, the United States of America. In the interim, Belarus, a relatively weak state insignificant in the global balance of power, shares Beijing’s beliefs about the desired nature of the contemporary world order. However, the Belarusian economy’s condition, which relies heavily on external funding, does not allow the economic cooperation between Minsk and Beijing to thrive. China gradually increases its engagement with Belarus, yet it obscures its ambitions, for Minsk lies in Moscow’s sphere of influence.

multipolarity Belt and Road BRI world order Lukashenko Belarus China

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Persistent Conflict and Perceived Post-Conflict Peacebuilding in Southern Kaduna Region of Nigeria

  • Author: Tunde A. Abioro
  • Institution: Obafemi Awolowo University (Nigeria)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4508-8555
  • Published online: 30 June 2021
  • Final submission: 16 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 11
  • Pages: 121-131
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202129
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202129.pdf

The cycle of individual and communal lives from birth to death is supposedly preserved by the government through institutions. However, political, social, and economic activities are engaged to make ends meet wherein the government is to serve as an unbiased regulator. The activities that play out in Southern Kaduna reflected politics of being on one side with interplay on origin, identity, religion, and locality. On the other hand, it reflects politics of belonging that play on kin, reciprocity, and stranger status. It has thus resulted in violence, suspicion, and persistent conflict. The study examines citizen’s inclusiveness in peacebuilding initiatives and the people’s perception of the sincerity of the government. The research relies on secondary sources where governmental and non-governmental publications and documents from relevant and reliable sources enriched the socio-historical approach, particularly those relating to contestation in the region. The study found out that just like situations in the other northwest states of the country, the crisis exacerbates by the government’s inability to mediate fairly between warring parties to ensure fairness and justice as well as failure to apprehend and punish the culprits, even as recommendations from the various interventions were unimplemented. Thus, the spate of violence continues.

Southern Kaduna justice peacebuilding conflict politics

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Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Relations Between Government and Parliamentary Opposition in Spain

  • Author: Agata Rydzewska
  • Institution: University of Warsaw (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7772-4275
  • Published online: 7 July 2021
  • Final submission: 30 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 12
  • Pages: 41-52
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202130
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202130.pdf

The COVID-19 strongly affected the states all over the world in several aspects, Spain, being an inglorious leader in terms of the number of infections in Europe, was highly afflicted by the coronavirus and further consequences. After problems with forming the government, which was caused by substantial political polarization, a new incumbent coalition needed to face new challenges, which was strictly connected with managing the coronavirus crisis. The article’s main aim is to present how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted the political situation in Spain by analyzing the relations between the ruling government and the parliamentary opposition.

government-opposition relations pandemic in Spain coronavirus crisis Spanish politics COVID-19

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The Round Table in 1989 – Consequences and Evaluation

  • Author: Wojciech Polak
  • Institution: Nicolaus Copernicus University (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6069-2876
  • Author: Sylwia Galij-Skarbińska
  • Institution: Nicolaus Copernicus University (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1799-4243
  • Published online: 10 July 2021
  • Final submission: 28 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 8
  • Pages: 149-156
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202131
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202131.pdf

The agreement of the round table signed on April 5, 1989, resulted in the creation of the government of Tadeusz Mazowiecki (September 12, 1989) and the end of communist rule in Poland. However, it should be pointed out that the agreement of the round table is currently often criticized. It is claimed, among other things, that the agreement was a form of “unification of the elite” (the term Jack Kuroń) to obtain financial and political benefits. As a result, the mixed communist-solidarity elite has taken over power in the country, guided solely by their own interests. It is also stressed that the contract has enabled the Communists to retain enormous influence in the special services, state administration, various institutions, the economy, and finance. On the other hand, these irregularities have been attributed to the solidarity elites who consider the round table agreements to be persistent. Other parts of the solidarity elite treated the round table exclusively as tactical action to take power away from the Communists.

Tadeusz Mazowiecki cabinet contracted elections in Poland Round Table

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Digitization in the Era of Coronavirus – A Review

  • Author: Łukasz Pietraszek
  • Institution: Kazimierz Wielki University, Poland
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9284-4117
  • Published online: 10 July 2021
  • Final submission: 29 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 8
  • Pages: 33-40
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202132
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202132.pdf

In the modern world, the development of technology has a significant impact on various areas of human functioning. However, the appearance of the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic and the need to implement numerous restrictions resulted in an even greater increase in the importance of new technologies, especially in such sectors as education, administration, or finance. In Poland, the introduction of the remote work system encountered many difficulties related to the unpreparedness of previous structures to implement such solutions. An example of a country where they operate efficiently, responding to the problems that Poland faces today, is Estonia, in which, beginning from 2004, the state administration sector has been gradually replaced by a digital system based on Blockchain technology. At present, in Poland, appropriate steps are already taken by the Ministry of Digitization to digitize public administration in the form of a plan of four streams. Given the protracted pandemic, the possibilities for immediate solutions and considering the advantages and disadvantages of digitizing the state seem worth attention.

X-road e-Government Blockchain digitization COVID-19

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Economic Sanctions as a Tool of China’s Hybrid Strategies

  • Author: Rafał Wiśniewski
  • Institution: Adam Mickiewicz University (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0155-246X
  • Published online: 10 July 2021
  • Final submission: 30 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 13
  • Pages: 91-103
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202133
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202133.pdf

The article aims to analyze the role of economic sanctions in the People’s Republic of China’s overall approach to achieving its security objectives in the international arena. During the last two decades, Beijing used this instrument on numerous occasions to exert pressure on a varied group of actors. China’s current strategy toward a range of disputes and conflicts it is engaged in (the South China Sea territorial disputes most prominently stand out) is often described using the popular vocabulary of “hybrid warfare” or “grey zone conflicts”. Putting the conceptual complications aside, the author agrees that the PRC’s approach can be viewed as part of a growing trend for great powers to employ what can be called “hybrid strategies” toward its opponents. As part of a broader category of economic statecraft, economic sanctions form an important element of this approach. Considering current scholarship on both “hybrid” (or “grey area”) warfare and economic sanctions, the article answers the question of why the PRC increasingly resorts to hybrid strategies (including economic coercion) and identifies the main characteristics of Chinese economic sanctions. It also provides preliminary conclusions on their effectiveness.

economic sanctions People’s Republic of China coercion hybrid warfare

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Transforming Fears into the Populist Communication

  • Author: Patryk Wawrzyński
  • Institution: Nicolaus Copernicus University (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0911-1068
  • Published online: 10 July 2021
  • Final submission: 29 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 5
  • Pages: 198-202
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202134
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202134.pdf

Book Review: Agnieszka Stępińska, Artur Lipiński, Dorota Piontek, Agnieszka Hess, Populist Political Communication in Poland. Political Actors – Media – Citizens, Logos Verlag, pp. 243.

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Humanity–Organization–Technology in View of Industry 4.0 / Society 5.0

  • Author: Andrzej Kiepas
  • Institution: Silesian University of Technology (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5279-5288
  • Published online: 10 July 2021
  • Final submission: 11 April 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 12
  • Pages: 21-32
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202135
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202135.pdf

The article addresses selected problems related to the perspective on the development of Industry 4.0 and social and cultural changes that accompany this development and lead toward the so-called post-digital society. In the field of industry, the changes concern, among others, the functioning of various organizations, and in the perspective of post-digital society – human beings and their relations with the world of technology. These changes lead to an increase in the role of technological factors, hence the current revival of technological determinism, and this, in turn, has to do with questions regarding human subjectivity. In this context, questions regarding humans also revolve around the need to acknowledge their increasing capabilities and scope of freedom, and on the other hand, their loss of autonomy in relation to the world of technology.

human-technology relations smart organizations post-digital society society 5.0 Industry 4.0

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Book Review: Janusz Mariański, Socjologia i moralność. Czym jest i dokąd zmierza socjologia moralności? [Sociology and Morality. What Is the Sociology of Morality and Where Is it Heading?], Adam Marszałek Publishing House, Toruń 2019, pp. 355.

  • Author: Mariusz Zemło
  • Institution: University of Białystok (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0945-8651
  • Published online: 10 July 2021
  • Final submission: 30 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 3
  • Pages: 204-207
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202136
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202136.pdf

Protocooperation as a Model for the Russia-UAE Partnership

  • Author: Andrzej Jacuch
  • Institution: Military University of Technology (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1013-6107
  • Published online: 10 July 2021
  • Final submission: 4 July 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 16
  • Pages: 105-120
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202137
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202137.pdf

Russia’s intervention in Syria in 2015 marked the Russian Federation (RF) return as a key player in the Middle East and North Africa. In this context, the relations between Russia and the UAE are of utmost importance for both entities, for the region, and globally. This article seeks to fill a gap in scholarly knowledge by answering questions about the nature of the emerging cooperation between Russia and the UAE. How Russia seeks to use the UAE to expand its sphere of influence in the MENA region and how the UAE uses this cooperation to achieve its foreign policy goals. The article applies protocooperation (an analogy to the ecological relationship) as a model for the Russia-UAE partnership. The RF is strengthening its position in the MENA regarding the UAE as a key partner for regaining its political, economic, and military influence in the MENA region. Russia-UAE’s partnership aims at achieving conjunctural geopolitical interests benefiting from diminished Western, mainly the US, presence in the region.

UAE geopolitics Russia economy international relations

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Cybercrime on the Example of Selected Botnets

  • Author: Przemysław Mazurczak
  • Institution: Siedlce University of Natural Sciences and Humanities (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2986-8607
  • Published online: 16 July 2021
  • Final submission: 6 July 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Year of publication: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 13
  • Pages: 53-65
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202138
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202138.pdf

The article presents threat analysis resulting from botnet activity on the Internet. Botnet networks are a very common tool among cybercriminals. They enable the acquisition of large amounts of data from computers infected with the virus that creates the given network entirely subordinated to its creator. Currently, many unidentified botnets are a threat to Internet users. Those identified and diagnosed answer the problem of how dangerous a botnet is in the hands of cybercriminals. The article presents statistics and analysis of selected botnets. Currently, there is a decline in the interest in botnets in cybercrime, although many new threats appear, suggesting that botnets will continue to be popular and are still a dangerous weapon in the hands of criminals.

computer network botnet cyberspace cyber threats cybersecurity

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Systemic Analysis of Politics in the Light of Reconstruction of Structural Functionalism of Jeffrey C. Alexander

  • Author: Jarosław Nocoń
  • Institution: Univeristy of Gdańsk (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1202-7580
  • Published online: 16 July 2021
  • Final submission: 29 June 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Year of publication: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 14
  • Pages: 7-20
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202139
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202139.pdf

Applying systems analysis in political science research is still one of the important dimensions of political science methodology. Reconstruction of the functional model of the social system seems to be an attractive proposition for policy researchers. Signed by the name of Jeffrey Charles Alexander, the American version of neofunctionalism is one of the responses to the crisis of traditional forms of structural functionalism. The main purpose of the reconstruction of T. Parsons’s theory was its revitalization consisting in restoring the possibility of its application in contemporary social research. The reinterpretation of the classical approach was to a large extent “forced” by harsh criticism of the current approach and focused especially on attempts to overcome the limitations contained therein, which manifested in the impossibility of correlation of functional theorems with newly developing research currents Jeffrey Alexander restored relevance and emphasizes suitability for interpreting and explaining political processes and phenomena. Understanding the concept of functions and functional relations in the political environment allows for effective application in the analysis of contemporary political systems. Therefore, changing the method of functional analysis is a useful methodological tool in developing a political theory.

functional explanation political analysis political system

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Poland's Reason of State in the Creation of a New International Order. Foreign Policy as Poland's Reason of State in the 21st Century

  • Author: Piotr Lewandowski
  • Institution: War Studies University (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3664-4815
  • Published online: 19 July 2021
  • Final submission: 13 July 2021
  • Printed issue: December 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 16
  • Pages: 133-147
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202140
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202140.pdf

The article analyzes the Polish reason of state in changing international order understood as the loss of hegemon position by the United States. The author defines the reason of state as an analytical operant and relates it to the security and sovereignty of a state in the international environment. The text also outlines possibilities of development of Poland's reason of state in the region and global geopolitics.

new international order Poland's reason of state geopolitics security

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United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals and the Most Important Utilitarian Values. Social Security Approach

  • Author: Pawel Gromek
  • Institution: Main School of Fire Service
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0997-5069
  • Author: Tadeusz Kęsoń
  • Institution: Main School of Fire Service
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7047-7811
  • Published online: 17 September 2021
  • Final submission: 17 September 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 18
  • Pages: 157-174
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202146
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202146.pdf

2030 Agenda constitutes a comprehensive framework for sustainable development. Nevertheless, not all sustainable development goals properly match the most important utilitarian values (human life and health). It is especially noticeable in terms of disasters and crises, which commonly determine social security. The research objective is to indicate the placement of the values in the particular goals. The systematic literature review indicates 47 information sources. That enables an in-depth analysis of the goals and social security specification elements, highlighting the direct or indirect character of relevant relations. The gaps can be identified considering the social character of the goals, characteristic hazards, danger to human life, and health and urgency of the response. In most cases, the relations between the goals and the values are indirect. They can be improved with a potentially positive influence on sustainable development in all circumstances (including the most dangerous ones). The goals specification states many references for the improvement in a synergistic way respecting the most important utilitarian values, especially in zero hunger, good health and well-being, sustainable cities and communities, climate action, partnership for the goals.

SDGs sustainability Sustainable Development Goals social security security

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Military Security of Poland – From Theory to Practice

  • Author: Grzegorz Sobolewski
  • Institution: Main School of Fire Service
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4484-450X
  • Published online: 2 November 2021
  • Final submission: 20 September 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 21
  • Pages: 175-193
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202150
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202150.pdf

National and international security remains a fascinating area of scientific research. Studies of phenomena and processes in military security suggest that we are witnessing great and intense changes. In their analyses of the modern security environment, both NATO and the EU wish to accommodate the existing conditions. Poland also has been affected by that process. The security policy should be based on the main assumption that Poland is a sovereign security entity, able to define its national interests and strategic objectives autonomously. However, the foundations of our security are assured by membership in the EU and NATO, good relations in the region, a strategic alliance with the USA, and an internal defense mechanism. The needs of the state and the society for national security arise from a dynamic rate of changes in challenges and hazards. The Author intends to combine theory with practice that is implemented in favor of the military security of Poland. First of all, the essence of military security is presented from theoretical and utilitarian viewpoints. The subsequent parts of the paper present research results related to the identification of contemporary challenges and hazards to the military security of Poland. This approach provided an opportunity to outline assumptions of policy and strategy underlying military security in current international security conditions.

military potential state defense system military challenges and threats military security national and international security security strategy

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The Forecast of the Number of Soldiers in the Saudi Arabian Army in Terms of Military Security

  • Author: Bartosz Kozicki
  • Institution: Military University of Technology
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6089-952X
  • Author: Jarosław Zelkowski
  • Institution: Military University of Technology
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6698-2938
  • Author: Szymon Mitkow
  • Institution: Military University of Technology
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2845-2589
  • Author: Mariusz Gontarczyk
  • Institution: Military University of Technology
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1512-4092
  • Published online: 25 September 2021
  • Final submission: 16 September 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 10
  • Pages: 149-158
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202147
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202147.pdf

The study concerns forecasting the number of soldiers in the Saudi Arabian army based on information obtained from the website: https://data.worldbank.org (The World Bank, 9.03.2020). The research began with a comparative analysis of the number of soldiers in the armies of Saudi Arabia and Russia. The idea for a comparative analysis of the number of armies of Saudi Arabia and the Russian Federation arises from Russian policy in the region of the Middle East countries, including the impact on world oil prices. The comparative analysis showed the similarities and differences in the dynamics of changes in the number of both armies dynamically. Subsequently, the primary time series data analysis on the number of Saudi Arabian troops was performed. The study selected methods for predicting raw data: Holt’s exponential smoothing and Klein’s model for the future. The next stage of the research was forecasting and the analysis and evaluation of the obtained forecasts. Klein’s model was the best forecasting model. The forecast of the number of soldiers in the Saudi Arabian army for 2020 is 251454, and for 2021, it has increased to 251006. The study ends with a summary and conclusions.

Russia’s policy the Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia forecasting human resources policy military security

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The Forecasting of Military Expenditure in Saudi Arabia in Terms of Military Security

  • Author: Bartosz Kozicki
  • Institution: Military University of Technology
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6089-952X
  • Author: Jarosław Zelkowski
  • Institution: Military University of Technology
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6698-2938
  • Author: Szymon Mitkow
  • Institution: Military University of Technology
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2845-2589
  • Author: Mariusz Gontarczyk
  • Institution: Military University of Technology
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1512-4092
  • Published online: 17 December 2021
  • Final submission: 12 November 2021
  • Printed issue: 2022
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 8
  • Pages: 61-68
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202204
  • PDF: ppsy/51/ppsy202204_5.pdf

The study attempts to forecast military expenditure in Saudi Arabia for 2020. The research began with a comparative analysis of military expenditure in Saudi Arabia and Russia between 2000–2019. For this purpose, bar charts were used on which the calculated values of the dynamics indices with a fixed (2000) and movable (previous year) base of the considered primary data were outlined. The study was preceded by constructing a multiple regression model to evaluate the impact of the increase in military expenditure in Russia on Saudi Arabia. This model shows that as military spending in Russia increases by one million dollars, military spending in Saudi Arabia increases by $ 0.085 million. Then, data on the expenditure incurred by both analyzed countries in 2020, obtained from various internet sources, was outlined. Their analysis made it possible to select only qualitative methods in the form of expert opinions for the forecast. Saudi Arabia's military expenditure forecast was $ 57 500 million.

Russian and Saudi Arabian policy expenditure forecasting military security COVID-19

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Age Discrimination (Aspects and Manifestations) in the Perception of Active Seniors

  • Author: Michał Kubiak
  • Institution: University of Gdańsk
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4231-8071
  • Published online: 19 July 2021
  • Final submission: 12 July 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 18
  • Pages: 175-192
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202142
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202142.pdf

Among many demographic changes, one of the most evident now is the aging of the population, the consequences of which are increasingly leaving a mark on the directions of social policy. In connection with the aging of the population and positive aspects, manifestations of ageism, based on stereotypes and negative attitudes toward older people, are also more and more noticeable. Sometimes, these are discriminatory practices against older people encountered in the health sector, the labor market, public offices, and others. The research presented in the article aimed to identify age discrimination and its manifestations among older people. The purposive sampling technique was used to choose the research sample – the assumption was to examine active older people related to a large city who get involved and participate in various activities and projects carried out for them by nongovernmental organizations. The method of a diagnostic survey with a questionnaire, which included both closed and open-ended questions, was used in the research. The research was intended to help answer the following questions: do older people notice age discrimination, and have they experienced worse treatment because of their age? How many of the surveyed seniors experienced worse treatment and what forms (most often) did it take, and where did it happen?

older people age discrimination senior policy ageism aging stereotypes old age social policy

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Dispute over the Powers of the President of the Czech Republic

  • Author: Marcin Czyżniewski
  • Institution: Nicolaus Copernicus University
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3227-0035
  • Published online: 25 September 2021
  • Final submission: 23 August 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 12
  • Pages: 81-92
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202143
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202143.pdf

This article aims to analyze disputes and discussions on the powers of the President of the Republic, which have been happening since the establishment of the Czech Republic in 1993. These occurred when the President tried to interpret the provisions of the Constitution, took actions beyond their framework, or considered that his powers did not impose an obligation to act automatically. The disputes over the President’s powers were, therefore, not the result of theoretical discussions on the constitutional order of the Czech Republic, but were the result of the President’s involvement in the political life of the country, and above all, the decisions that did not correspond to the opinions and actions of the government. Disputes did not have an impact on a permanent change in the constitutional order. For example, there was no reason for an amendment to the Constitution that would extend, restrict, or clarify those powers.

presidential powers Constitution executive power Czech Republic political system

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The Impact of Conflicts on Natural Resources – The Case of Sudanese Darfur Region

  • Author: Nagmeldin Karamalla-Gaiballa
  • Institution: University of Commerce and Services
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7613-3334
  • Author: Siham El-Kafafi
  • Institution: Arrows Research Consultancy
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5480-451X
  • Published online: 25 September 2021
  • Final submission: 13 August 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 12
  • Pages: 7-18
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202144
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202144.pdf

This research paper explores the impact of sociological perspectives on the relationship between natural resources and conflicts. From these theoretical perspectives, many fundamental sources of conflict over natural resources are identified and defined. This research takes the approach of a case study in which the researchers investigate and analyze the sources of conflict happening in the Darfur region of Sudan. This case study explores the demographic changes, economic development, and social inequality among some factors contributing to conflict over resources in this region. The research findings demonstrated that various factors play a vital role in the availability of natural resources, which is the main reason sides other reasons flaring conflict in the Darfur region in Sudan. These factors are related to climate change, destruction of ecosystems, immigration, demographic change, and political changes. Even though various factors could impact the conflict of resources in the Darfur region in Sudan, these researchers focused in this research paper on the sociological perspective only.

demographic change social inequality economic development natural resources Darfur conflict

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Circles, networks, and relations of Jerzy Giedroyc and “Kultura”

  • Author: Iwona Hofman
  • Institution: Maria Curie-Skłodowska University
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0492-5169
  • Published online: 25 September 2021
  • Final submission: 3 August 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 12
  • Pages: 193-204
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202145
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202145.pdf

The purpose of the article is to describe the model and method of management of the Literary Institute and “Kultura” by Jerzy Giedroyc using the categories of circles, networks, and relations, verifying in this way the editor’s legend. The analysis covered the entire period of the Institute’s operation (1946-2000), comparing the internal periodization of the activity with the changes of the authors in the “Kultura” circle, which made it possible to distinguish between the friendly and home circle and three authors’ circles. The diaries, biographies, and letters provided the grounds to emphasize the significance of the network for building the position of “Kultura” as an opinion-forming magazine and a place of help for emigrant writers. Managing “Kultura” is presented, which is focused on creating relations and being objective. Synthesis, content analysis, and comparative methods have been used. This problem has not been discussed so far in the extensive literature on the subject.

“Kultura” authors the Literary Institute letters Jerzy Giedroyc Editors

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Selected Problems of Security Control in Civil Aviation Based on Own Empirical Research

  • Author: Gabriel Nowacki
  • Institution: Military University of Technology
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5357-8824
  • Author: Bohdan Paszukow
  • Institution: Aviation Security and CBRN, EDD, EU COM Working Group
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5357-8824
  • Published online: 18 October 2021
  • Final submission: 13 September 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 19
  • Pages: 69-87
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202148
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202148_6.pdf

The paper refers to the evolution of methods, new technologies, and devices in security control processes in light of civil aviation requirements, procedures, and increased flow of passengers. The research problem has been defined as follows: How shall the international airport security controls function in the context of regulatory and operational conditions and current and future threats? In reference to the problem, the research hypothesis was defined as follows: Security control in civil aviation consists of screening persons and detecting prohibited articles and mainly depends on the professional competence of security staff and the proper selection and maintenance of electronic assistive devices. Professional competences refer to personnel’s knowledge, experience, qualification, monitoring, operational supervision, and quality control as part of their tasks. The development of new technologies requires the appropriate selection, commensurate with risk analysis, of electronic assistive devices, including equipment, methods, technical means, and their maintenance in a proper technical condition. The paper presents the results of empirical research conducted amongst experienced aviation security forums. Because of its complexity and unpredictability, this problem still leaves a wide margin for improvement and efficiency. The following research methods were used to solve the research problem: theoretical methods and empirical methods: diagnostic survey and expert interview.

civil aviation security control new technology terrorism

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Common Security and Defense Policy of the European Union Through the Prism of Polish Experiences and Security Interests

  • Author: Teresa Usewicz
  • Institution: Polish Naval Academy
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6234-224X
  • Author: Kinga Torbicka
  • Institution: University of Warsaw
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6625-5060
  • Author: Magdalena El Ghamari
  • Institution: Collegium Civitas
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5798-7545
  • Published online: 18 October 2021
  • Final submission: 8 August 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 27
  • Pages: 33-59
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202149
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202149.pdf

In this paper, the authors attempt to prove that the Polish position on developing the EU’s Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP) was skeptical, despite entries in political and strategic documents which emphasized its great significance for Polish security policy. It is evidenced by Poland’s low level of involvement in EU missions and operations and other undertakings in the CSDP area. The central hypothesis adopted at the beginning of the research is that Poland has always treated security and defense within the European Union as a kind of complement to the potential and capabilities developed within the framework of the North Atlantic Alliance, and the Polish involvement in CSDP has never been adequate to the provisions contained in political and strategic documents. Poland’s stance resulted, on the one hand, from the weakness of the CSDP’s political framework, which was shaped by numerous compromises among its member states, and on the other hand, from the political elite’s conviction that only NATO’s, and de facto the United States’, security guarantees are credible. In this paper, the authors analyze Poland’s previous experience resulting from polish participation in the policy in question and the evolution of Poland’s position toward its development in the context of the Republic of Poland’s security interests formulated in political and strategic documents.

security interests Common security and defense policy European Union Poland

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Joe Biden’s Strategy in the Asia-Pacific Region: Change or Continuity. A Comparative Analysis

  • Author: Marcin Grabowski
  • Institution: Jagiellonian University
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1447-1818
  • Published online: 2 November 2021
  • Final submission: 12 October 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 11
  • Pages: 95-105
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202152
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202152.pdf

The election of Joseph Biden for the office of the President of the United States has brought expectations of fundamental change in American foreign policy, including policy toward the Asia-Pacific/Indo-Pacific region. As observed in the last few months, the reality has been more complex as definite changes in the US Indo-Pacific policy are not as visible as expected. It is especially in respect of the US policy toward China being more a continuation than a change from Donald Trump’s approach. Changes are rhetorical rather than actual policies. The situation is different in the case of alliances, as Joe Biden offers much more commitment to allies like Japan or South Korea. Also, multilateral dimensions (both regional and global) witness some – however still limited – change. The main goal is to make a comparative analysis of Joe Biden’s policy toward Asia, referring to the administrations of Barack Obama and Donald Trump. Hence the strategies of pivot/re-balance toward the Asia of Obama, and the free and open Indo-Pacific strategy of Trump, will be examined. The analysis refers to the complex interdependence theory and the power transition theory. Methodologically, it is based on document analysis with comparative analysis.

Asia-Pacific Joe Biden Indo - Pacific Donald Trump Barack Obama United States

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Fake News and the Europeanization of Cyberspace

  • Author: Krzysztof Wasilewski
  • Institution: Koszalin University of Technology
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5378-2822
  • Published online: 2 November 2021
  • Final submission: 23 September 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 20
  • Pages: 61-80
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202153
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202153.pdf

As both the European Union and its member states acknowledge that the proliferation of fake news threatens their political stability and – consequently – the general idea of European integration – they have undertaken many steps to confront that problem. Them, the article examines how EU institutions, together with the member states, have tackled the spread of disinformation within the common policy of cybersecurity. The novelty of this study is that it does so concerning the ongoing process of Europeanization of cyberspace, combining the field of information technology with European studies.

fake news public sphere European Union Europeanization cybersecurity

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What Rule of Law for the European Union? – Tracing the Approaches of the EU Institutions

  • Author: Justyna Maliszewska-Nienartowicz
  • Institution: Nicolaus Copernicus University
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8266-3104
  • Author: Marcin Kleinowski
  • Institution: Nicolaus Copernicus University
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4613-5886
  • Published online: 2 November 2021
  • Final submission: 14 November 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 14
  • Pages: 19-32
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202155
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202155.pdf

Although the rule of law is a normative notion, it requires a multidimensional approach. It speaks to important issues of law and politics, and its respect is essential for both legal and social security. It can be observed within the European Union (EU) where the issue of respect for the rule of law by its Member States has gained particular importance. The main goal of our study is to contribute to the academic discourse concerning the EU rule of law. The analysis particularly considers the approaches adopted by the EU institutions to the definition of this concept. Consequently, the first part of the article concentrates on difficulties in defining the rule of law. The second part presents the evolution of the Court of Justice approach toward this concept. The next part contains the analysis of the attitudes presented by other EU institutions in their documents. In the conclusions, it is underlined that although the approaches of the EU institutions towards the rule of have evolved, and they have tried to define it and indicate its main components, certain issues require clarification, e.g., the relations of the rule of law with other values.

'A new EU Framework to strengthen the Rule of Law' ASJM case Les Verts case the EU rule of law and substantive approaches to the rule of law

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Cultural Security in Shaping the Generation of Civilizational Advancement Within the Universalization of Cultural Transformations. Based on Research Conducted in Samoa

  • Author: Mirosława Jaworowska
  • Institution: Main School of Fire Service
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3870-9336
  • Published online: 17 December 2021
  • Final submission: 28 November 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 13
  • Pages: 161-173
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202156
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202156.pdf

The Author has demonstrated that Samoan youth is not indifferent to cultural universals, despite attempting to co-create them in the course of a multi-cultural dialogue and globalization processes. The study was founded on research results conducted through local observations and a questionnaire distributed among students of the Faculty of Education at the National University of Samoa in Apia. The research aimed to learn about the opinions, aspirations, attitudes, and value systems of Samoan students as they represent the educated elite of the 21st-century generation. The interviewed approve of contemporary civilizational novelties, as long as those do not harm the traditional culture. The socialization process in the Samoan youth has been occurring on a borderland between upbringing, traditional family-tribal, and the modern state-citizen education in schools and social life. Family and traditional customs are still vivid despite being more open to contemporary civilization and state developments. Although cautious towards novelties that might threaten the Samoan culture, these attitudes may be assessed as a reformatory. Based on the results obtained in Samoa, it is justifiable to state that the process of cultural transformation universalization has been occurring there in many areas of reality.

universalization system transformation generation of civilizational advancement emancipation generation culture of security culture clash value system cultural transformation

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Conciliatory and Conflictual Ethnopolitical Concepts in the Republics of the Russian Federation: Tatarstan and Chechnya

  • Author: Andrzej Wierzbicki
  • Institution: University of Warsaw
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5493-164X
  • Author: Sylwia Gorlicka
  • Institution: University of Warsaw
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1205-030X
  • Published online: 17 December 2021
  • Final submission: 9 March 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 17
  • Pages: 131-147
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202157
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202157.pdf

Russia is a state with a multi-ethnic federal structure inherited from the USSR. Implementing an ethnic policy that would unite and integrate its citizens is one of its most important goals. Among Russia’s federal subjects are also national republics pursuing their own ethno-political concepts, either conciliatory or conflictual. Tatarstan and Chechnya are examples of such republics. With the use of the comparative method, the article is an attempt at demonstrating many factors that have an impact on the shaping and implementing of the ethnic policy through such criteria as the status of the republics, the concept of the nation, and ethnocentrism, historical memory, the role of Islam and its politicization, and the language policy. The article also outlines their consequences and possible future scenarios.

federal subject Chechnya Republic ethnopolitics Tatarstan Russia

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The United States in India's Strategy in the Indo-Pacific Region Since 2014

  • Author: Jakub Zajączkowski
  • Institution: University of Warsaw
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1459-3850
  • Published online: 17 December 2021
  • Final submission: 17 November 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 23
  • Pages: 107-130
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202158
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202158.pdf

The article's objective is to analyze the main assumptions of India's strategy in the Indo-Pacific region and define the role of the US in it. The time frame of the article is determined by the assumption of power in India in 2014 by the Indian People's Party (Bharatiya Janata Party, BJP), led by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, as well as the opening of a new stage of the US-led Indo-Pacific rebalancing strategy, which followed China's initiation in 2013 of its Belt and Road Initiative (previously known as the One Belt One Road project). The article seeks to answer the following main research question: What role has India attributed to the United States in its Indo-Pacific strategy since 2014? It hypothesizes that the United States has assumed an increasingly significant role in India's regional strategy over the past seven years, but not to the extent of a formal alliance, only approaching at best the status of a strategic partnership. The theoretical framework used to analyze the case study of the US role in India's regional strategy is the category of institutional balancing and the assumptions of neoclassical realism. The choice of such research tools was determined by their explanatory value. Moreover, both models complement each other. Bearing the above in mind, the following structure of the article was adopted. The first part presents the general assumption of the analysis and the theoretical framework. The second discusses the evolution of India's approach to the US from 2014 to 2021, indicating the reasons for its change and reconstructing the role of the US in the Indian regional strategy, especially after 2020. The third part draws on the theoretical framework adopted in the article, i.e., the assumptions of institutional balancing and neoclassical realism, to offer conclusions that answer the main research questions.

the Indo-Pacific region India strategy the United States

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Book Review: Joanna Marszałek-Kawa, Maria Ochwat (Eds.), Problems, Threats and Challenges for Peace and Conflict Resolution, Toruń 2021, pp. 256.

  • Author: Agnieszka Lipska-Sondecka
  • Institution: University of Szczecin
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8911-4087
  • Published online: 17 December 2021
  • Final submission: 17 November 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 3
  • Pages: 207-209
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202159
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202159.pdf

Estonia as an Area of Russian Influence: Analysis and Synthesis of the Kremlin’s Methodology of Exerting Influence on Tallinn’s Political and Social Stability

  • Author: Jacek Bil
  • Institution: Military University of Technology
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9586-528X
  • Published online: 30 December 2021
  • Final submission: 19 November 2021
  • Printed issue: 2022
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 12
  • Pages: 31-42
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202207
  • PDF: ppsy/51/ppsy202207_2.pdf

Russia's hostile actions against the Estonian state structures take the form of soft power, which can be observed in such areas as the activities of the Russian-speaking minority, media coverage, or through the use of coercion when it comes to fuel sales. This article presents qualitative methods of measuring Russian influence on Estonia. An observable trend in international relations is replacing hard power with soft power, commonly used against states within the sphere of interest of certain geopolitical entities. It is more difficult to identify the latter and prove it results from an aggressor's deliberate actions. Information warfare, including disinformation and propaganda, is one of the means Russia uses to exert political influence. By accepting the offer of a political and military alliance with the Western world, the Baltic States have become a threat to the Kremlin's imperialist aspirations. Russia's direct military actions against Estonia and the other Baltic states would have provoked a strong reaction and could even have led to military confrontation. However, the Russian government wishes to avoid it and, for the time being, limits itself to soft power measures.

impact qualitative methods soft power Policy Estonia Russia

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Russia Against Ukraine Before the European Court of Human Rights. The Empire Strikes Back?

  • Author: Milena Ingelevič-Citak
  • Institution: Jagiellonian University
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2585-4814
  • Published online: 30 December 2021
  • Final submission: 5 December 2021
  • Printed issue: 2022
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 23
  • Pages: 7-29
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202206
  • PDF: ppsy/51/ppsy202206_1.pdf

In July 2021, Russia submitted its first inter-state complaint against Ukraine to the European Court of Human Rights. It was an unexpected and intriguing step of the Russian government, especially since many of the presented allegations are linked to the events that initiated the Russian-Ukrainian conflict. Referring to the hostilities that began in 2014, the international community was, in principle, unanimous in assessing who the aggressor was. The focus of this research is the strategy of the Russian Federation in its recently initiated legal battle before the Strasbourg Court. This paper presents an attempt to outline the possible motives for taking such a step. Moscow's position on this case is particularly puzzling, as some of the allegations concern the Crimean Peninsula, widely recognized under international law as territory occupied by Russia. In spite of that, doubt arises about the strategic objectives of the Russian authorities in the conflict with Ukraine; the question is whether the actions taken by Russia fall within the scope of its previous strategy or if there has been a new turn in the matter. The first part of this paper outlines the background of the given conflict, the second details Russian policy after the annexation of Crimea, and the third, which is crucial for the formulating of conclusions, presents considerations on Russia's possible motivation and goals in filing a complaint to the European Court Human Rights. The research was conducted mainly based on the merits of the complaint, the statements of the representatives of Russia and Ukraine in the matter, the author's observations, and practitioners' considerations.

lawfare the policy of the Russian Federation the annexation of the Crimean Peninsula inter-state case Russian-Ukrainian conflict European Court of Human Rights

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The Role of Material Stocks in the National Security System

  • Author: Paweł Ślaski
  • Institution: Military University of Technology
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1950-9910
  • Author: Małgorzata Grzelak
  • Institution: Military University of Technology
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6296-7098
  • Published online: 30 December 2021
  • Final submission: 19 November 2021
  • Printed issue: 2022
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 21
  • Pages: 57-77
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202208
  • PDF: ppsy/51/ppsy202208_4.pdf

The article consists of two parts. The first part describes the essence of the national security system and its structure. Using the Ishikawa diagram and the value chain, the authors presented the shortcomings of the national security system and a sequence of actions that can improve it. The second part of the article is devoted to material stocks and their role in the analyzed system. The survey research presented in this part of the article confirmed the importance of material stockpiles in ensuring national security. In addition, the research highlighted the need for government organizations to cooperate in the continuous replenishment of material stocks during a crisis.

stocks of materials national security system COVID-19

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Hybrid Warfare or Hybrid Threat – The Weaponization of Migration as an Example of the Use of Lawfare – Case Study of Poland

  • Author: Piotr Łubiński
  • Institution: Pedagogical University of Kraków
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6007-5683
  • Published online: 30 December 2021
  • Final submission: 22 November 2021
  • Printed issue: 2022
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 13
  • Pages: 43-55
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202209
  • PDF: ppsy/51/ppsy202209_3.pdf

This article aims to address the issue of alleged hybrid warfare attacks on Lithuania, Latvia, and Poland. The scope of the article covers the Belarus operations conducted in 2021. Firstly, the author addresses the issue of pushing migrants from a descriptive perspective. Secondly, he debates whether Belarus operation was conducted within the scope of hybrid warfare, hybrid threat, and lawfare? The author concludes that the Republic of Belarus has operated lawfare falling within the hybrid threat spectrum. It means that the situation is not to be classified under the law of armed conflict from the perspective of international and non-international armed conflicts and ius ad bellum violation. Thirdly, the author claims that Belarus has violated international law, so certain legal redress is appropriate and justified. Belarus's actions may result in a court proceeding before the International Court of Justice and before other international institutions.

law of armed conflict the migration crisis use of force refugee non-state actors

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Cities, Transnational Law, and COVID-19

  • Author: Agnieszka Szpak
  • Institution: Nicolaus Copernicus University (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7601-1230
  • Author: Joanna Modrzyńska
  • Institution: Nicolaus Copernicus University (Poland)
  • ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5409-6787
  • Published online: 2 November 2021
  • Final submission: 24 October 2021
  • Printed issue: 2021
  • Source: Show
  • Page no: 18
  • Pages: 75-92
  • DOI Address: https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy202154
  • PDF: ppsy/50/ppsy202154_5.pdf

This paper aims to point to the transition from international law to transnational law that, on the one hand, is caused, and on the other, is strengthened by the growing role of cities in the fight against COVID-19. Various interactions between cities and other international actors give rise to new trends and challenges on the international plane. One of such terms, transnational law, refers to developments beyond the nation-state and includes “all law which regulates actions or events that transcend national frontiers”. It is characterized by a plurality of overlapping normative systems and a growing role of new actors in the international arena, which are cities. The authors give examples of cities bypassing or complementing states with special emphasis on European cities (Polish including) as well as of cities’ transnational cooperation to fight COVID-19 pandemic, filling the gaps in inter-governmental multilateral cooperation.

bypass global law transnational law COVID-19 cities international law international relations

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