Volume 37 (2008)

Promotion of Legal Culture as a Factor of New Stage in Integration. From the Community of Legal Values to the Community of Law

  • Author: Tadeusz Biernat
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 7-22
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008001
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008001.pdf

The basis of European communities’ integration is diversified. Some of its aspects are particularly emphasized, like the dynamics of economic development, which creates new quality of life for millions of Europeans. Much attention is devoted to the common historical past and the common democratic political values. The attention is focused, to a lesser extent, on what constitutes the real basis of cultural identity for European societies, namely law and the attitude to it. It is law and values attributed to it as well as legal institutions, which have been the strongest links of cultural chain connecting Europeans. Except for a basic issue, that is the Roman law tradition, one can point at a great common achievement with essential practical qualities. Lex mercatoria in the field of commercial law. Traditions of European constitutionalism, including the second, in the terms of the time of creation, modern constitution which was Polish constitution of 1791. Modern civil law becoming widespread due to the French Napoleonic Civil Code, which at the beginning of the 19th century was binding on the eastern European territory within such borders, which are now the European Union’s borders. The exchange of ideas and legal doctrine from the Middle Ages at European Universities. Promoting in these discussions, starting from the 16th century, modern solutions in the area of law, like the postulate of departing from capital punishment and equal rights. A systematic development of subjective rights, human rights, equal rights for women, rights of minorities and rights of the disabled. Introducing these rights to the positive law and ensuring their international and institutional protection.

civil law Legal cultures Civil Code culture

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Proposal of the Law and Justice (PiS – Polish abbrev.) to Amend the Act about the Direct Choice of a Voit, Mayor and President of the City. Opinions about Possible Effects and Consequences

  • Author: Joanna Marszałek–Kawa
  • Institution: Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 23-30
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008002
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008002.pdf

In democratic legal systems there is a wide variety of instruments which profoundly affect the composition of future parliaments. They can cause significant changes in final results of both the parliamentary and municipal election. Due to them political parties can improve their position in emerging legislatures (gmina councils, poviat councils or sejmiks of the voivodeship), or even, I mean smaller formations in the first place, can guarantee any representatives in the chamber (council, sejmik). Politicians make use of these instruments most frequently in the face of the oncoming election. These mechanisms allow, on the grounds of binding law, to cause a result much worse than expected for the opposition or formations competing for power. In countries with deeply rooted democracy, it is most often a good political habit that makes any changes in the Electoral law take place long from the election. In our political reality, however, it is a rule that the election campaign is accompanied by auctions on legal grounds. Namely, changes in the borders of election districts take place, vote calculation methods are modernised so that they would be naturally beneficial for those who carry out such normative transformations.

theory of law elections

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New Conditions and Changing Image of Military Forces in the Early 21st Century. Readiness to Unlimited Violence?

  • Author: Jarosław J. Piątek
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 31-42
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008003
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008003.pdf

Today’s world undergoes unbelievably rapid changes in the main spheres of social life. Nearly everyday we can see spectacular socio-political, economic, cultural, science and technological transformation. Rules previously typical for an industrial society became obsolete. The third wave of civilization development and information society emerges. Increasingly more often production capacity enables manufacturing goods considerably saturated with modern knowledge to develop into highly advanced technologies. New forms of production developed, including soft ware, media, advertising, consulting, and public relations. Consequently, the stage of relative stabilization comes to its end and threats result from the lack of ability to follow continuous changes.

military theory military forces

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Voter Absenteeism in the Local Government Elections in Poland in 2006

  • Author: Teresa Sasińska–Klas
  • Institution: Jagiellonian University in Kraków (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 43-56
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008004
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008004.pdf

Numerous public opinion polls conducted in Poland since the 1990s have tried to answer questions linked with the processes of installing, and later stabilizing the new democratic order. Theoretical considerations were conducted on the basis of political science, sociology, and communications studies dealing with the democratic system, tended to concentrate on procedural questions as well as in institutional frameworks dealing with the functioning of the democratic system. Analyses dealing with the social reception of the political transformations and their reflection in the state of social awareness most often were in reference to the situation concerning successive political elections. It would appear the linking of these research approaches, of the so-called theoretical studies of the democratic process in the political system as well as empirical findings, and also perceived social signals resulting from public opinion research, may lead to the creation of more valuable results, as well as the posing of new research questions.

elections in Poland elections

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The Senate 2007: Block Voting in Operation

  • Author: Jarosław Flis
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 57-75
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008005
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008005.pdf

Elections to the Senate are rarely a topic of deep analysis by media or researchers. The Upper House of the Parliament is not a place where key political decisions are made. The Government, which is appointed by the majority of the Lower House, the Sejm, is the center of Polish political life. Experience show that the political situation in the Senate is much more stable than in the Sejm. From 1997, parties which won elections to the Sejm always had a majority in the Senate, although none of these parties had an independent majority in the Sejm. The 2007 elections crown this trend – only one mandate in the Senate was given to a candidate who did not come from the winning party or any main opposition parties. Every fifth mandate in the Lower House was given to smaller parties. The purpose of this analysis is to find an answer to the question on what leads to such results.

block voting Senate elections

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The Economic Dimensionof the Activity of Women in the Council of Ministers in Poland between 1989 and 2008

  • Author: Małgorzata Kamola–Cieślik
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 76-84
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008006
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008006.pdf

Polish economy is one of but many issues with which the Council of Ministers is concerned. It is managed and run by appropriate ministries, which are responsible for how well they function. Since 1945 most governmental jobs were given to men. There were very few women actively functioning in public life. Throughout the history of the Polish People’s Republic not a single woman was appointed either Prime Minister or VicePrime Minister and very few women were nominated as ministers. There were only two women who were responsible for economic matters, if only to a very limited degree – Maria Milczarek, the Minister of Administration, Infrastructure Economy and Environmental Protection (from 2nd Dec, 1976 to 8th Feb, 1979), and Anna Kędzierska – the Minister of Domestic Trade and Services (from 30th May, 1984 to 6 th Nov, 1985).

Council women in politics economy

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"Spillover" in action – Neofunctionalism Revisited. Freedom to Provide Services Outside the Country of Establishment and its Consequences

  • Author: Rafał Riedel
  • Institution: University of Opole (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 85-105
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008007
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008007.pdf

Services sum up to 70 % of EU’s GDP, and just 20 % of cross-border trade of the European Union – partly due to the unjusti! ed regulatory and administrative burdens implied on different levels of member states administration. The existence of those barriers has stimulated the works on the directive freeing the service sector and implementing a number of rules that may potentially become milestones of integration, compared only to such “history making” moments as Single European Act or Maastricht Treaty."The freedom to provide service outside the country of establishment’ principle, previously known as the ‘country of origin’ rule, carries this revolutionary impetus. It will allow a service provider be settled in one EU member state and deliver a service (personally or by delegated employees) in another one with all the legal consequences, especially: some aspects of taxation and social security contributions. Unsurprisingly, it has become one of the most controversial legal acts debated in the last decades Europe-wide. This principle may, to a large extend, undermine the foundations of welfare state, especially in the Western part of continental Europe, as it may force the regulated capitalism oriented countries (like Scandinavian ones) to verify their social policies accordingly to competition pressure coming from lower social standards member states. This may, as it is speculated in this paper, fuel the harmonising of social policies on Community level. Free movement of services was introduced fifty years ago, however it has been usually interpreted from the consumers’ perspective: free access to the service by service consumer relocation or trans-border trading. Service provider relocation was tolerated only when accompanied with establishment in the consumer’s country. The Service Directive, following the logic of previous European Court of Justice verdicts, introduces – on the secondary law level – the freedom to be established in another country than the country where the service is provided. This practical challenge is examined theoretically on the grounds of neofuncionalist rationale, as the discussed directive, by its supporters called: the greatest improvement of the internal market since its creation, can act as an empirical proof of neofunctionalism theory applicability. Implementing this approach, especially the revitalised spillover mechanism, is an efficient theoretical vehicle showing satisfactory exploratory power, as well as allowing speculations about the future development on the edge of politics and economy within European integration process. It also highlights the behaviour of supranational actors creating ‘stress among the states’ to progress the integration into the desirable direction (cultivated spillover). The deliberations in this paper are rooted in exempli! cations of so far practices infringing the free movement of services rule, as well as enriched with some argumentation for and against this form of directive (transformative decisions and legitimacy / democracy de! cit). The arguments used are deeply rooted in ! nal version text of the directive accompanied by interpretation of major principles. In the conclusive part author summarises that theoretical legacy of neofunctionalism – in the case of the Service Directive – seems to be adequate and the deductive argumentation based on it positively veri! es the potential of the theory.

spillover neofunctionalism Bolkestein’s directive free movement of services

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The Evolution of the Approach of the State Authorities to Minorities and Ethnic Groups in the Third Republic of Poland (outline of issues)

  • Author: Ewa Waszkiewicz
  • Institution: University of Wrocław (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
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  • Pages: 108-126
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008008
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008008.pdf

The new borders and new ideology imposed on Poland in the aftermath of World War II significantly affected the ethnic structure of the state and the approach of its communist authorities towards minority groups. The pre-war Poland was a multi-national state where Poles represented about 69.2% of the population, the remaining 30.8% were the members of minorities – with the biggest communities of Ukrainians, Belarusians, Germans and Jews. According to the first, official, post-war census – the minority groups represented after 1945 already only 2% of the citizens of new Poland.

multi-national new ideology Ethnic Groups Poland

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The Question of Kosovo Independence in Polish Political Debate

  • Author: Renata Podgórzańska
  • Institution: University of Szczecin (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 127-140
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008009
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008009.pdf

The proclamation of independence of Kosovo, although expected, had a destabilizing impact on the international situation. International community had various opinions on the decision of Kosovo authorities. Numerous conditions in "uenced the positions of individual countries. Countries acknowledging independence of Kosovo, that is some EU countries and the United States, recognized the proclamation of independence of Kosovo as a final stage of the Yugoslavia’s break-up with the basis for peaceful cooperation on the Balkans. Whereas, countries opposing the secession of Kosovo found it against the international law. They perceived this act as an example of western countries’ dominance and feared that it would form a dangerous precedent threatening international stability and security.

Debate Kosovo polish political

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Signs of Society. Non–Governmental Organizations in Israel and the Palestinian Authority

  • Author: Marcin Skocz
  • Institution: University of Wrocław (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 141-156
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008010
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008010.pdf

The situation of conflict between Israelis and Palestinians has lasted for over a century with half of the century of increasing violence, especially after the Six Days War. The long-standing occupation has been leading to mental take over by this issue and dehumanization of opponents in both parties’ minds. Although in last decade one could see some symptoms of peace process, especially after Oslo agreement, violence always erupted despite the official papers. In this paper I will examine the conditions of societies in the Palestinian Autonomy and Israel with special emphasis on NGOs. Although it is obvious that civil society cannot be narrowed to the non-governmental organizations, one can say that the NGOs are the most visible and measurable among the signs of existence of civil society.

Palestin Palestinian Authority Israel

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Change as the Subject of Research in the International Relations Science

  • Author: Teresa Łoś–Nowak
  • Institution: University of Wrocław (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 157-183
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008011
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008011.pdf

Questions asked above are in fact questions about theoretical identity, explanative efficiency and scope of researches in the international relations science, undertaken attempts of answering them decide on particular complexity of the subject of researches, controversies around subjective scope of researches and research methods. Starting from the first serious, inter-paradigmatic debate at the turn of nineteen fiftiies and sixties, conducted by representatives of the realistic trend and new behavioural approach to the last debate from nineteen eighties and nineties, there has been lasting discussion on ontological and epistemological problems of the international relations science. However, it does not discourage researchers from continuing careful and considerable reflection on the condition of discipline and its place in the Pantheon of Science, and for sure it does not discourage them from deepening theoretical discourse on explanative efficiency of various theoretical approaches and their methodological correctness in the process of getting to know, as well as explaining world complexity at the turn of the 20th and 21st century and new gauntlets thrown down by the 21st century.

Science International Relations Science international relations

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Cohabitation: the Parliamentary Aspect of the French Semi–Presidential System

  • Author: Małgorzata Madej
  • Institution: University of Wrocław (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 184-207
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008012
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008012.pdf

The political system of the French Fi€fth Republic is referred to as “semi-presidentialism”. This is is to indicate its mixed nature – of a system presidential and parliamentary at a time. The Constitution grants broad prerogatives – and assigns serious tasks to both the head of state – le Président de la République – and the chief of government – le Premier ministre. When the prime minister represented the pro-presidential political camp, the head of state gained very serious in! uence on governing the state and political strategy (first, when the French political scene was dominated by the right – 1958–1981; then by the le€ – 1981–1986 and 1988–1993; and finally by the right again 1995–1997 and since 2002). As early as during Charles de Gaulle presidency (1958–1969) the idea called domaine reservée came into existence. According to this political concept, the widelyinterpreted external policies – including foreign affairs and defence were recognised as presidential prerogatives, regardless the of literal construction of legal provisions. Relations within the executive changed radically with the end of political unity. During the so-called cohabitation French political practices were different and they ultimately led to an amendment of the Constitution.

Parliamentary Aspect French Semi–Presidential System France

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Book review: Jan Zielonka, “Europe as an Empire. Fresh Glance at the European Union”, The Polish Institute of International Affairs, Warsaw 2007, pp. 268

  • Author: Józef M. Fiszer
  • Institution: ISP PAN (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 208-213
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008013
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008013.pdf

Seemingly the European Union topic, globalisation and new international order issues have received enough attention, with scores of books published on the subject, innumerable conferences and seminars held, both in Poland as well as in countries all over the world, Western Europe in particular. Despite all that, many questions bothering academics and politicians remained unanswered, not to mention ordinary people in EU member states and countries aspiring to the Union membership. Still no one knows in what direction the changes should proceed, in relation to the European Union as well as the rest of the world, commonly referred to as globalisation or economic globalisation processes. We still do not know the future shape of Europe or the world. It is unknown to us what the new international order will look like, what main centres of power will develop, responsible for worldwide harmony, security, and peace. For that very reason the European Union idea, globalisation and integration processes have as many supporters as adversaries. What’s more, those who until recently were the enthusiasts of globalisation, are saying today, like the Noble laureate Joseph E. Stiglitz, that the way “in which globalisation is conducted, (…) should be thoroughly well-thought-out again”. At the same time we observe the renaissance of all kind of nationalisms and attempts to glorify the concept of an ethnic state, as a counterweight to commonwealth and above-national structures. It appears that the ideas that once united Europe, peace and prosperity, are not sufficient today. 

Józef M. Fiszer Jan Zielonka book review

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Book review: “Human Rights Under Domestic Law”, Agnieszka Florczak and Bartosz Bolechow (eds.), Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2006, pp. 157

  • Author: Agnieszka Jasińska
  • Year of publication: 2008
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  • Pages: 213-215
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008014
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008014.pdf

The work entitled “Human Rights Under Domestic Law”, edited by Agnieszka Florczak and Bartosz Bolechow is a joint publication devoted to broadly understood regulations regarding protection of freedom and human rights.The publication is a collection of six articles covering issues in the area of protection of freedom and human rights under domestic law in selected post-communist countries and in the countries of the Commonwealth of Independent States. €The book is addressed to students of law, political science, administration and sociology, as well as journalists, officials and all those who want to broaden their knowledge in the field of protection of human rights and freedoms.

Agnieszka Jasińska Bartosz Bolechow Agnieszka Florczak book review

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Book review: Przemysław Grudziński, “Intelligent State: Poland in Search of an International Role”, Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2008, pp. 180

  • Author: Jakub Tyszkiewicz
  • Institution: University of Wrocław (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 215-218
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008015
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008015.pdf

The new book by an experienced historian and a diplomat Przemysław Grudzinski, who in this moment is the vice minister of Polish Foreign Affairs, is an interesting effort to answer the key question - what foreign policy is needed by Poles at the beginning of 21th century. The book can be divided into three main parts. First, the author, based on a theory of international relations and history, and his own diplomatic and scholarly experience, tries to find a solution for the Polish foreign policy. Secondly, the theoretical foundation shows the place of Poland in history and an international system since modern era until today. Thirdly, such an approach allows him to consider what kind of policy is needed for Warsaw today.

Jakub Tyszkiewicz Przemysław Grudziński book review

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Book review: Paul Collier, “The Bottom Billion”, Oxford University Press, 2007

  • Author: Rafał Riedel
  • Institution: University of Opole (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 218-220
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008016
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008016.pdf

Paul Collier’s recent publication: ”The Bottom Billion” tries to give an answer to the question stated on the cover: why are the poorest countries failing and what can be done about it? Collier points at fifty states claiming that the real problem lies there, affecting circa one billion of their population. The sources of the decline in living standards are identified in four groups: the trap of a conflict, natural resources – usually being a part of the problem, less frequently part of the solution, the problem of being landlocked by “bad neighbors” and last but not least – bad governance.

Rafał Riedel Paul Collier book review

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Book review: Jarosław J. Piątek, “Tactical Aspects of the Armed Struggle”, Toruń 2005

  • Author: Piotr Krzyżański
  • Institution: University of Economics in Poznań (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
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  • Pages: 220-224
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008017
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008017.pdf

In 2005 Adam Marszalek Publishing House published a pioneer book: Tactical Aspects of the Armed Struggle, which intended to be a briefing position about a not very well explored part of military history – the analysis of evolution of tactical factors influencing warriors and soldiers in the past historical époques.

Piotr Krzyżański Jarosław J. Piątek book review

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Book review: “Local Government: A Politological Study”, ed. Joanna Marszałek–Kawa, Wydawnictwo Duet, Toruń 2007, pp. 262

  • Author: Mariusz Popławski
  • Institution: University of Białystok
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 224-227
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008018
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008018.pdf

The history of local government on Polish territories is not shorter or less fascinating than in other European countries. However, political obstacles, military conflicts, changes in the statehood system or finally its loss caused that what wherever else is the basis for further development of local democracy in Poland has to be built from the start. I mean here of course the long-lasting tradition of independent shaping and strengthening patterns, views and visions of local & regional self-governance, of which chance to fully develop Poland had not have. €The socio-political reality of today’s 3rd Republic is a dynamically evolving country, which due to the rapidness of that change demands strong support from its finest researchers and scientists.€ The goal set for them is to present a wide range of concepts that will allow to program the future direction of progress. €This way the necessary fundaments for Polish democracy at the regional and local level, and a tradition of discussion and sustainable development is born. In my opinion a good attempt to take part of the mentioned responsibility was the book edited by PhD Joanna Marszałek-Kawa from Univeristy of Nicolaus Copernicus in Torun, Poland.

Mariusz Popławski book review

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Book review: P. Ebigg, R. Fiedler, A. Wejkszner, S. Wojciechowski, “The Lexicon of Contemporary Terrorist Organizations”, Institute of Political Science and Journalism, Poznań 2007

  • Author: Wojciech Stankiewicz
  • Institution: University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 230-237
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008020
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008020.pdf

Terrorism is one of the greatest threats to contemporary civilization.  e incidents that take the form of terrorist attacks occur in the territories of many countries, and they diff er not only in motives and methods, but also in realization measures.  ese incidents continue to grow in numbers and escalate. In fact, terrorism paralyses huge masses of people and causes harm to the proper functioning of democratic countries, especially their economic, social and political institutions. Rich countries are as much affected by it as those plunged in economic crises. Because of globalization, terrorists may freely travel around the world unnoticed by the most advanced identifi cation systems. 

Wojciech Stankiewicz S. Wojciechowski A. Wejkszner R. Fiedler P. Ebigg book review

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Book review: Bartłomiej Michalak, “Protes Parties in Western Europe. Analysis of Political Relevance” (Partie protestu w Europie Zachodniej. Analiza relewancji politycznej), Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek, Toruń 2008, pp. 312

  • Author: Alfred Lutrzykowski
  • Institution: Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń (Poland)
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 237-239
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008021
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008021.pdf

Protes Parties in Western Europe. Analysis of Political Relevance by Bartłomiej Michalak is a book that deserves attention of wide range of readers, who are willing to deepen their knowledge concerning transformations of contemporary party systems. It is political parties that since nearly two centuries are a phenomenon of European political life. In other parts of the world they bring attention of not only researchers, but also of constantly growing social groups. Today, political life of any society is hard imaginable without parties, its coalitions, contentions and conflicts as well as almost constant presence of parties’ leaders and activists in everyday life of millions of citizens of big metropolis and distant provinces.

Bartłomiej Michalak Alfred Lutrzykowski book review

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Book review: Faces of Conflicts: Collection of Analyses and Case Studies. Under the edition of Jarosław J. Piątek and Renata Podgórzańska. Adam Marszałek Publishing House, Toruń 2008, pp. 330.

  • Author: Sylwia Ewelina Serwońska
  • Year of publication: 2008
  • Source: Show
  • Pages: 227-230
  • DOI Address: http://dx.doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2008019
  • PDF: ppsy/37/ppsy2008019.pdf

At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries the notion of conflict took a new meaning. The issues of wars, terrorism and nationalism have created a new model of civilization, which is aggressive and imperialist towards others. Particular human populations are trying to take priority over others, using all accessible means to achieve that. In times when globalization is an inevitable factor, a conflict determines the existence and development of various cultures, nations and civilizations. We are a small turbine in this great machine. The multidimentional character of the above mentioned nations makes us contemplate and think them over. Paradoxically, a conflict and a war following it, is not less terrible than several dozen years ago. As Alvin Toffler wrote “If the war used to be a very important occupation left to generals, now it is too important to be dealt with by ignorants no matter if they wear a uniform or not. The issue of conflict used to be, is, and will be the nightmare of mankind. Will we win it, the time will only show”.

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