Security threats related to areas beyond national jurisdiction

The research goal of this paper is to develop a two-dimensional catalogue of security threats related to areas beyond national jurisdiction, taking into account specific features of each area and its legal regime. The catalogue of threats will take the form of a matrix where each area beyond national jurisdiction will be juxtaposed with five categories of threats: political, military, ecological, economic and human security. The matrix will visualize which threats are of relevance to the security of a particular area beyond national jurisdiction as well as which threats originating in a particular area beyond national jurisdiction are of relevance to the security of States and the whole international community.

REFERENCES:

• Abeyratne, R. (2011). Space Security Law. Springer.
• Andreone, G. (2017). The Future of the Law of the Sea: Bridging Gaps Between National, Individual and Common Interests. Springer Nature.
• Annex I, Resolution I, Establishment of The Preparatory Commission For The International Sea-Bed Authority And For The International Tribunal For The Law Of The Sea, UNCLOS.
• Antarctic Climate Change and the Environment (2009). Retrieved from: https://www.scar.org/science/acce/acce/.
• Antarctic Treaty (1959). Retrieved from: https://www.bas.ac.uk/about/antarctica/theantarctic-treaty/the-antarctic-treaty-1959/.
• Brady, A.-M. (2019). Antarctica as a Site of Strategic Competition: Optimal Responses for Australia and New Zealand. In: Antarctica 2050: Strategic Challenges and Responses. Retrieved from: https://www.acmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-04/Antarctica%20Booklet%20Final%2020200221.pdf.
• Bugajski, D. R. (2009). Prawa żeglugowe okrętu w świetle prawa międzynarodowego. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar.
• Buzan, B., Wæver, O., & de Wilde, J. (1998). Security. A New Framework for Analysis. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
• Byrd, D. (2020). Are solar storms dangerous to us? Retrieved from: https://earthsky.org/space/are-solar-storms-dangerous-to-us/.
• Chircop, A. (2011) Managing Adjacency: Some Legal Aspects of the Relationship Between the Extended Continental Shelf and the International Seabed Area. Ocean Development & International Law, 42, 307–316.
• Cuyvers, L. et al. (2018). Deep seabed mining: a rising environmental challenge. IUCN and Gallifrey Foundation.
• DeBlois, B. et al. (2004). Space Weapons: Crossing the U.S. Rubicon. International Security, 29(2), 50–84.
• Defense Intelligence Agency (2022). Challenges to security in Space. Space Reliance in an Era of Competition and Expansion 2022. Retrieved from: https://www.dia.mil/Portals/110/Documents/News/Military_Power_Publications/Challenges_Security_Space_2022.pdf.
• Dubiński, J. (2013). Sustainable Development of Mining Mineral Resources. Journal of Sustainable Mining, 12, 1–6. DOI: 10.7424/jsm130102.
• European Space Policy Institute (2021). Emerging Spacefaring Nations. Retrieved from: https://espi.or.at/publications/espi-public-reports/category/2-public-espi-reports.
• Feichtner, I. (2019). Contractor liability for environmental damage resulting from deep seabed mining activities in the area. Marine Policy. DOI: 10.1016/j.marpol.2019.04.006.
• Feichtner, I. (2019). Mining for humanity in the deep sea and outer space: The role of small states and international law in the extraterritorial expansion of extraction. Leiden Journal of International Law, 1–20. DOI: 10.1017/S0922156519000013.
• Garcia, M. (2021). Space Debris and Human Spacecraft. Retrieved from: https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/orbital_debris.html.
• George, J. P. (2019). History of anti-satellite weapons: US tested 1st ASAT missile 60 years ago. Retrieved from: https://www.theweek.in/news/sci-tech/2019/03/27/history-antisatellite-weapon-us-asat-missile.html.
• Griffiths, R. T. (2020). The Maritime Silk Road: China’s Belt and Road at Sea. Lulu Press, Inc.
• Harding, H. (2021). The space race is back on – but who will win? Retrieved from: https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jul/16/the-space-race-is-back-on-but-who-willwin. List of national space agencies see https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/space-agencies.html.
• Hassan, D. (2017). Protecting the marine environment from land-based sources of pollution: towards effective international cooperation. Routledge.
• Hays, P. L. (2015). Space and security: A reference handbook. ABC-CLIO, LLC.
• Hemmings, A. D., Rothwell, D. R., & Scott, K. N. (2012). Antarctic Security in a Global Context (Chapter 17). In: A. D. Hemmings, D. R. Rothwell & K. N. Scott. Antarctic Security in the Twenty-First Century. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261989747_Antarctic_Security_in_a_Global_Context.
• Hemmings, A. D. (2021). The philosophy of law in the Antarctic. In: D. Bunikowski & A. D. Hemmings (eds.). Philosophies of Polar Law (pp. 13–29). Routledge.
• Hogan, L. (1997). Solar storms. Scribner.
• Howell, E. (2021). Space tourism took a giant leap in 2021: Here’s 10 milestones from the year. Retrieved from: https://www.space.com/space-tourism-giant-leap-2021-milestones.
• International Communication Union (1992). Optional Protocol on the Compulsory Settlement of Disputes Relating to the Constitution of the International Telecommunication Union, to the Convention of the International Telecommunication Union and to the Administrative Regulations. Retrieved from: http://www.itu.int/net/about/basic-texts/optional-protocol.aspx.
• International Maritime Organization (2020). Reports on acts of piracy and armed robbery against ships. Annual Report – 2019. Retrieved from: https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/OurWork/Security/Documents/MSC.4-Circ.264%20Annual%20Report%202019.pdf.
• ISA (2013). The International Seabed Authority and the Common Heritage of Mankind. Retrieved from: https://www.iflos.org/wp-content/uploads/isa-lecture-july-2013.pdf.
• Janssens, J. et al. (2020). Space Weather: The Impact on Security and Defense. In K.-U. Schrogl et al. (eds.). Handbook of Space Security: Policies, Applications and Programs. Springer Nature.
• Jihong, Ch. et al. (2019). Oil spills from global tankers: Status review and future governance. Journal of cleaner production, 227, 20–32.
• Kaplan, R. D. (2009). Center stage for the twenty-first century: power plays in the Indian Ocean. Foreign Affairs, 88(2), 16-32.
• Karawita, A. K. (2019). Piracy in Somalia: An Analysis of the Challenges Faced by the International Community. Journal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, 23(2), 102–119.
• Keeler, E. et al. (2021). Deep-sea hydrothermal vent sediments reveal diverse fungi with antibacterial activities. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 97(8), 1–20.
• Lewin, S.  (2018). Astronauts Identify Mystery Microbes in Space for the 1st Time. Retrieved from: https://www.space.com/39254-astronauts-sequence-microbes-dnain-space.html.
• Lilensten, J., & Bornarel, J. (2005). Space weather, environment and societies. Springer.
• Martin, J.  A. (2017). Antarctic Climate Change Security. Retrieved from: https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/14096.
• Moltz, J. C. (2008). The Politics of Space Security: Strategic Restraint and the Pursuit of National Interests. Stanford University Press.
• Mora, C. et al. (2013). Biotic and human vulnerability to projected changes in ocean biogeochemistry over the 21st century. PLoS biology, 11(10).
• Morrison, D. et al. (2004). Impacts and the Public: Communicating the Nature of the Impact Hazard. In: M. J. S. Belton et al. (eds.). Mitigation of Hazardous Comets and Asteroids (353–390). Cambridge University Press.
• Moskowitz, C. (2011). Space junk problem is more threatening than ever, Report Warns. Retrieved from: http://www.space.com/12801-space-junk-threat-orbital-debrisreport.html.
• Ntorina, A. (2015). Definition and Status of Space Security. In: K.-U. Schrogl et al. (eds.). Handbook of Space Security. Springer.
• Paladini, S. (2019). The New Frontiers of Space: Economic Implications, Security Issues and Evolving Scenarios. Springer Nature.
• Pabortsava, K., & Lampitt, R. S. (2020). High concentrations of plastic hidden beneath the surface of the Atlantic Ocean. Nature Communications, 11(1), 1–10.
• Pelton, J. N. (2013). Space Debris and Other Threats from Outer Space. Springer.
• Press, T. (2019). Antarctica 2020–2050: challenges for Australia and New Zealand. In: Antarctica 2050: Strategic Challenges and Responses. Retrieved from: https://www.acmc.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-04/Antarctica%20Booklet%20Final%2020200221.pdf.
• Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (1991). Retrieved from: https://www.ats.aq/e/protocol.html.
• Rome, N. (2021). Growth of space and lunar stations: Promise amidst geopolitical risk. Georgetown Security Studies Review. Retrieved from: https://georgetownsecuritystudiesreview.org/2021/07/14/growth-of-space-and-lunar-stations-promise-amidstgeopolitical-risk/.
• Rossiter, A., & Cannon, B. J. (2020). Conflict and cooperation in the Indo-Pacific: New geopolitical realities. In: A. Rossiter & B. J. Cannon (eds.). Conflict and Cooperation in the Indo-Pacific (1–11). Routledge.
• Rothwell, D. R., Scott, K. N., & Hemmings, A. D. (2012). The search for ‘Antarctic security’. In: A. D. Hemmings, D. R. Rothwell & K. N. Scott (eds.). Antarctic Security in the Twenty-First Century (1–17). Routledge.
• Abeyratne, R. (2011). Space Security Law. Cham: Springer.
• Sana, S. S. et al. (2020). Effects of microplastics and nanoplastics on marine environment and human health. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 44743–44756.
• Security in Space: The Next Generation Conference Report, 31 March–1 April 2008 (2008). Retrieved from: https://unidir.org/publication/security-space-next-generationconference-report-31-march-1-april-2008.
• Sheehan, M. (2015). Defining space security. In: K.-U. Schrogl et al. (eds.). Handbook of Space Security: Policies, Applications and Programs. Springer.
• Singh, A. (2017). The Dragon s Adventures in the Indian Ocean. In: J. S. Bajwa (ed.). China: Threat or Challenge? Lancer Publishers LLC.
• Sun, X., & Zhang, X. (2022). Alien species invasion of deep-sea bacteria into terrestrial soil. Journal of Cleaner Production, 371. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133662.
• Sygna, L, O’Brien, K., & Wolf, J. (2013). A Changing Environment for Human Security: Transformative Approaches to Research, Policy and Action. Routledge.
• Tanaka, Y. (2019). The international law of the sea. Third Edition. Cambridge University Press.
• Taylor, I. (2021). New strains of bacteria found on the International Space Station. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencefocus.com/news/new-strains-of-bacteria-foundon-the-international-space-station/.
• The European Space Agency (2021). Space debris by the numbers. Retrieved from: https://www.esa.int/Safety_Security/Space_Debris/Space_debris_by_the_numbers.
• Turner, J. et al. (2009). Antarctic Climate Change and the Environment. SCAR.
• UCS Satellite Database. Retrieved from: https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellitedatabase.
• UN GA resolution 2749 (XXV). of 17 December 1970, A/RES/2749(XXV). Retrieved from: https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/201718.
• United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982). Retrieved from: https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/unclos_e.pdf.
• United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (n.d.). The Outer Space Treaty. Retrieved from: https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html.
• Vassiliou, A. (2021). Antarctica – Future Conflict Zone? Retrieved from: https://finabel.org/antarctica-future-conflict-zone/.
• Venet, Ch. (2011). The political dimension. In: Ch. Brunner & A. Soucek (eds.). Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law (77–91). Springer.
• Voosen, P. (2022). Outer Space May Have Just Gotten a Bit Closer. Retrieved from: https://www.science.org/content/article/outer-space-may-have-just-gotten-bit-closer.
• Williamson, M. (2010). Scope and Methodology. In: M. Hofmann, P. Rettberg & M. Williamson (eds.). The IAA Cosmic Study. Protecting the Environment of Celestial Bodies (7–15). Retrieved from: https://iaaspace.org/wp-content/uploads/iaa/Scientific%20Activity/Study%20Groups/SG%20Commission%205/sg56/sg56finaldraftreport.pdf.
• World Economic Forum (2022). Crowding and Competition in Space. In: World Economic Forum. The Global Risks Report 2022, 17th Edition (70–79). Retrieved from: https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_The_Global_Risks_Report_2022.pdf.
• Wolter, D. (2006). Common security in outer space and international law. United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research.
• Wyrozumska, A. (1995). Ewolucja statusu prawnego Antarktyki a  państwa trzecie. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego.
• Van der Essen, A. (1996). The Origin of the Antarctic System. In: F. Francioni & T. Scovazzi (eds.). International Law for Antarctica (17–30). Kluwer.
• Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space as at 1 January 2022. Retrieved from: https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2022/aac_105c_22022crp/aac_105c_22022crp_10_0_html/AAC105_C2_2022_CRP10E.pdf.
• Vanreusel, A. et al. (2016). Threatened by mining, polymetallic nodules are required to preserve abyssal epifauna. Scientific Reports, 6.
• Zhu, C. (2017). India’s Ocean: Can China and India Coexist? Springer.