Terrorism and institutional soft target attacks in Nigeria: the way forward

Almost five decades have passed since after the Nigerian civil war that claimed closed to five million lives between Nigerian and Biafran separatists. Yet, rather than learn lessons learnt to forestall peace, it is worrisome that the escalation of terror against state and its institutions has taken heightened dimensions at various times. It is this worry that gave vent to this theoretical paper that utilizes content analysis to explore relevant parameters that are factorial to this dangerous escalation of terror in Nigeria particularly targeting its institutions as helpless soft targets for attack. Consequently, the paper questioned institutional alienation, inequality, and unhealthy politicization of religion and education as largely responsible for the increasing terror attacks. Drawing from these insights, the paper using induction and deduction tools, outlined major ways forward in addressing the menace of terror. Inclusive governance, income redistribution, secularism as a functional state policy and liberalization of access to education according literature, were strong factors that point to solutions that can lead productive engagement and inclusive involvement in governance and decision-making process in order to ultimately encourage the de-escalation of terror attacks against state and its institutions.

REFERENCES:

• Abah, A. (2021). Exploring the Religious Motives of the Boko Haram Terrorism in Nigeria. Walden University, College of Social and Behavioral Sciences.
• Abrahams, M., Conrad, J. (2017). The strategic logic of credit claiming: A new theory for anonymous terrorist attacks. Security Studies, 26(2), 279–304.
• Adams, V. (2019). Terrorism in Nigeria; Overview, Causes, Effects, Possible Solutions to Terrorism. Retrieved from: https://www.legit.ng.
• Adams, V. (2022). Terrorism in Nigeria; Overview, Causes, Effects, Possible Solutions; what is terrorism in Nigeria. Retrieved from: https://infoguidenigeria.com/terrorism-innigeria.
• Adedire, S. A., Ake, M., Olowojolu, O. (2016). Combating Terrorism and Insurgencyin Nigeria: An International Collaborations against Boko Haram. Fountain University Journal of Management and Social Sciences, 5(1), 67–74.
• Adesoji, A. (2010). The Boko Haram uprising and Islamic revivalism in Nigeria. African Spectrum, 45(2), 95–108. Retrieved from: https://doiorg/10.1177/000203971004500205.
• Africa Check (2014). Have over 13,000 people been killed in Nigeria’s insurgency? The claim is broadly correct. Retrieved from: https://africacheck.org/reports/have-13000-peoplebeenkilled-in-Nigeria-insurgency-the-claim-is-broadly-correct.
• Aghedo, I., Osumah, O. (2012). The Boko Haram uprising: How should Nigeria respond? Third World Quarterly, 33(5), 853–869.
• Ahmed-Gamgum, W. A. (2018). Herdsmen and farmers conflict in Nigeria: Another dimension of insecurity. Journal of Public Administration and Social Welfare Research, 3(1), 35–62.
• Ali, Y. M., Musa, B. M., Fada, K. A. (2016). Implications of Boko Haram insurgency on small and medium enterprises in Borno State, Nigeria: A review. Journal of Management Sciences, 14(1), 96–107.
• Alitogo, N. (2022). ISWAP claims responsibility for Abuja prision attack. Premium times. July 6 2022. Retrieved from: www.premiumtimesng.com.
• Allision, M., Anne, S., Ahmet S. Y. (2017). Beating ISIS in the digital space: Focus testing ISIS defector counter-narrative videos with American college students. Journal for Deradicalization, 10, 50–76.
• Berkebile, R. E. (2017). What is domestic terrorism? A Terrorism and Political Violence, 29(1), 1–26.
• Brañas-Garza, P., Antonio, E., Shoshana, N. (2013). Effects of Religiosity on Social Behavior: Experimental Evidence from a Representative Sample of Spaniards. London: CEPR.
• Bullock, J., Haddow, G., Coppola, D. P. (2017). Homeland security: The essentials. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann.
• Campbell, J., Bunche, R., Harwood, A. (2012). Boko Haram and Nigeria’s pervasive violence (Expert Brief). Council on Foreign Relations (CFR).
• Comolli, V. (2015). Boko Haram: Nigeria’s Islamist insurgency. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Crone, M. (2014). Den diskretekrig mod terror in Sahel. Udenrigsno, 3, 28–35.
• Danish Institute for International Studies. (n.d.). Boko Haram from local grievances to violent insurgency. Retrieved from: http://hdl.handle.net/10419/144733.
• Deurksen, M. (2021). Nigeria’s Diverse Security Threats. Retrieved from: https://africacenter.org/spotlightnigeria-diverse-security-threats/.
• Ekwowusi, S. (2022, 5 October). Why killer Fulani herdsmen are Terrorists. Sundiata Posts.
• Eme, O. I., Ibietan, J. (2012). The cost of Boko Haram activities in Nigeria. Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review, 2(2). Retrieved from: https://www.omicsonline.org/arabian-journal-business-management-review.php.
• Eneanya, A. N. (2015). Terrorism and global domestic insurgency nexus: A case of Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria. Journal of Public Management & Social Policy,21(1).
• Eneanya, A. N. (2015). Non-State Armed Islamist Groups’ Terrorism and Global Domestic Insurgency Nexus: A Case of Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria. Journal of Public Management & Social Policy, 21(1).
• Esho, G. (2022). Nigerian state and IPOB: The social, political, cultural and religious interplay. Retrieved from: https://www.vanguardngr.com/2022/07/nigerian-stateand-ipob-the-social-political-cultural-and-religious-interplay/.
• Eskay, (2018). 10 Causes of Terrorism in Nigeria. Retrieved from https://infoguidenigeria.com/causes-terrorism-Nigeria/.
• Esteban, J. M., Levy, G., Mayoral, L. (2015). Liberty, Religiosity, and Effort. London: CEPR.
• European Institute of Peace. (2020). Why do people join terrorist organizations? Retrieved from: http://eip.org/en/news-events/why-do-people-jointerrorist-organization.
• Feyyaz, M. (2016). Religion, ethnicity, social organizations and terrorists’ behavior – A case of Taliban movement in Pakistan. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 8, 111–134.
• Fischer, P., Fischer, J., Weisweiler, S., Frey, D. (2010). Selective exposure to information: How different modes of decision-making affect subsequent confirmatory information processing. British Journal of Social Psychology, 49, 871–878.
• Fischer, P., Postmes, T., Koeppl, J., Conway, L, Fredriksson, T. (2011). The meaning of collective terrorist threat: Understanding the subjective causes of terrorism reduces its negative psychological impact. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 1432–1445.
• Gifford, P. (2015). Christianity, Development and Modernity in Africa. London: Hurst.
• Hausknecht, B. (2019). Why are churches and Religious Organizations Tax-Exempt? Daily Citizen. Retrieved from: https://dailycitizen.focusonthefamily.com/why-arechurches-and-religious-organizations-tax-exempt/.
• Ikenwa, C. (2019). The 3 Major Types of Religions in Nigeria & Their Beliefs, October 28, 2019. Retrieved from: https://nigerianinfopedia.com.ng/major-types-of-religionsin-nigeria/.
• Institute for Security Studies. (2014). Is Kenya’s response to terrorism making it worse? Retrieved from: https://issafrica.org/about-us/press-releases/is-kenyas-response-toterrorism-making-it-wo.
• Iyekekpolo, W. O. (2016). Boko Haram: Understanding the context. Third World Quarterly, 37(12), 2211–2228. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2016.1177453.
• Jing, X. (2014). Nonbelievers’ Beliefs about Religion in China. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 42, 1221–1231.
• Johnson, T. M., Gina, A. Z. (2020). World Christian Encyclopedia (Third Edition). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
• Kassim, A. (2015). Defining and understanding the religious philosophy of jihādīsalafism and the ideology of Boko Haram. Politics, Religion & Ideology, 16(2/3), 173–200. Retrieved from: https://doi:10.1080/21567689.2015.107489.
• Kastenmüller, A., Aydin, N., Frey, D., Traut-Mattausch, E., Peus, C., Fischer, P. (2014). Terrorist threat and employees’ perceived ability to cope with organizational change. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44, 423–432.
• Kastenmüller, A., Greitemeyer, T., Ai, A. L., Winter, G., Fischer, P. (2011). In the Face of Terrorism: Evidence that Belief in Literal Immortality Reduces Prejudice under Terrorism Threat. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 50, 604–616.
• Kola, O. (2022). ISWAP terror group claims responsibility for prion attack in Nigeria’s capital. Africa. Retrieved from: www.aa.com.tr.
• Kwaifa, A. (2021). Role of non-formal education in tackling terrorism, Banditry. Retrieved from: https://dailytrust.com/role-of-non-formal-education-in-tackling-terrorismbanditry.
• Laqueur, W. (2017). A History of Terrorism. Abingdon: Routledge.
• Lin, P. K. F., Tong, E. M. W., Li Neng, L., Low, A.H. M., Gomes, D. (2016). The prosaically impact of God concept priming on God believers. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 3, 93–103.
• Lindeman, M., Lipsanena, J. (2016). Diverse Cognitive Profiles of Religious Believers and Nonbelievers. The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 26, 185–92.
• Lugo, L., Cooperman, A., (2010). Tolerance and Tension: Islam and Christianity in Sub- Saharan Africa. Washington, D.C: Pew Research Center.
• Madiha, A. (2020). From “Western Education is Forbidden” to the World’s Deadliest Terrorist Group Education and Boko Haram in Nigeria. Foreign Policy at Brookings.
• Mahdi, M. S. (2022). Islam religion; Philosophy and religion. Retrieved from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/islam.
• Maiangwa, B., Uzodike, O. (2012). The changing dynamics of Boko Haram terrorism (Report). Aljazeera Centre for Studies. Retrieved from: https://www.cfr.org/expertbrief/boko-haram-and-nigerias-pervasive-violence.
• Martin, S., Weinberg, L. B. (2016). Terrorism in an era of unconventional warfare. Terrorism and Political Violence, 28(2), 236–253.
• Marszałek-Kawa, J., Plecka, D., Hołub, A. (eds.). (2018). Social Security. Selected Aspects. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek.
• Matusitz, J. (2013). Terrorism and Communication: A Critical Introduction. Beijing: Sage.
• McKinnon, A. (2021). Christian, Muslims and Traditional worshippers in Nigeria: Estimating the relative proportions from Eleven Nationally representative Social Surveys. Review of Religious Research, 63, 303–315.
• Nacos, B. L. (2016). Terrorism and Counterterrorism. New York: Routledge. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315641270.
• Nakhleh, E. (n.d.). Nigerian Terrorism: Causes And Solutions. Retrieved from: https://lobelog.com/nigeria-terrorism-causes-and-solutions/.
• Ntoka, G. (2022). Five terrorist groups in Nigeria, their history and how to tackle them.
• Nwuko, O. A. (2022, 15 July). The danger of ISWAP in Nigeria. The Guardian. Retrieved from: www.guardianng.
• Ogungbile, E.O. (2020). Terrorism in Nigeria: A Glance at the History and Menace. Retrieved from: https://www.thenigeriavoice.com/news/290099/terrorism-in-nigeria-at-the-history-and-menace.html July 26, 2020.
• Okenwa, S.O.C. (2018, 26 January). Fulani Herdsmen as Terrorist: Ripples Nigeria. Fulani Herdsmen as Terrorists!
• Onuah, F., Eboh, C. (2011). Islamists kill dozens in Nigerian Christian bombs. The Atheist. Retrieved from: http://oct4stfrancis.wordpress.com/2011/12/25/islamists-kill-dozensinnigeriachristmas-bombs-by-felix-onuah-and-camillus-eboh.
• Pennycook, G., Ross, R.M., Koehler, D.J., Fugelsang J.A. (2016). Atheists and Agnostics Are More Reflective than Religious Believers: Four Empirical Studies and a Meta-Analysis. PLoS ONE, 11, e0153039.
• Pieria, Z.B., Zennb, J. (2016). The Boko Haram paradox: ethnicity, religion, and historical memory in pursuit of a caliphate. African Security, 9(1), 66–88. Retrieved from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19392206.2016.1132906.
• Rapoport, D. C. (2013). Inside Terrorist Organizations. Abingdon: Routledge.
• Sahara Reporters (2022). Breaking: ISWAP claims responsibility for attack on Nigerian police checkpoint in Edo, killing of personnel. Retrieved from: https://saharareporters.com/2022/09/23/breaking-iswap-claims-responsibility-attack-nigerian-policecheckpoint-edo-killing.
• Sasu, D. D. (2022). Terrorism in Nigeria – statistics and facts. Retrieved from: https://saharareports.com/2012/02/07boko-haram-religious-terrorist-sect-killing-name-“god”.
• Shariff, A. F., Mijke, R. (2012). Divergent effects of beliefs in heaven andhell on national crime rates. PLoS ONE, 7, e39048
• Stonawski, M., Potancova, M. C., Skirbekk, V. (2016). The changing religious composition of Nigeria: causes and implications of demographic divergence. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 54(3), 361–387.
• Subramanyam, M. (2018). Motivation leading to radicalization in terrorists. Forensic Res Criminology International Journal, 6(4), 301–307. Retrieved from: http://doi:10.15406/frcij.2018.06.00221.
• Susa Africa (2021). Insecurity in Nigeria: Religious Institutions need help. The Muslim Voice Audio. Retrieved from: https://muslimvoice.com.ng/2021/10/27inseurity-innigeria-religious-institutions-need-help/.
• United Nations (2022). Department of economic and social affairs. Population division. Retrieved from: https://countrymeters.info/en/Nigeria.
• World Population Review (2022). Nigeria population. Retrieved from: https://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/Nigeria-population.
• Zenn, J. (2012). Northern Nigeria’s Boko Haram: The Prize in Al-Qaeda’s African Strategy. Jamestown Foundation.
• Zurlo. G. (2017). A Demographic profile of Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa. In: K. Ross, J. K. Asamoah-Gyadu, T. M. Johnson (eds.). Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa. Edinburgh University Press.