The hierarchy rivalry theory is based on the perception of social reality as a rivalry between associations and rivalry of systems of norms. The state constitution is a collection of tops of hierarchies. A constitution can be changed for various reasons – sometimes the change is an attempt to transform reality, and sometimes it results from the ruling party’s attempt to maintain power. A constitutional change may be a revolution, understood as a process within the hierarchy, or an invasion resulting from external influence. The importance of the influence of ideology, but also of associations, on changes to the constitution should be recognized.

W artykule podjęty został temat relacji między rewolucją a postulatem emancypacji w myśli społeczno-politycznej Slavoja Žižka. Autor wskazuje, że w tekstach myśliciela rewolucja jest jedynym skutecznym narzędziem prawdziwej emancypacji klas społecznych wykluczonych. Artykuł jest efektem analizy treści zawartych w najważniejszych tekstach Žižka, w których poruszana jest tematyka rewolucji. Autor stosuje podejście interpretatywne i metodę hermeneutyczno- fenomenologiczną. Analiza dokonana została w trzech etapach. W etapie pierwszym autor wskazuje, że rewolucja jest u Žižka kwintesencją krytyki obowiązującego w społeczeństwie porządku symbolicznego. W drugim etapie autor dowodzi, że rewolucja jest formą radykalnego działania politycznego, które przynosi prawdziwą zmianę porządku. W trzecim etapie rewolucja zostaje ukazana jako wybuch oddolnej wolności i demokracji mas społecznych.

Jan Wacław Machajski (27.12.1866–19 02.1926)

Jan Wacław Machajski was characterized by a great changeability of moods and ability for going from one extreme to another – opposite to the previous one – from youthful years. Moreover, his attitude was very emotional and he was not deceived by any explanation or polemic. Originally he got involved in illegal activity in Polish national movement. However, having been arrested by Russians and sentenced to three years in prison and five years exile to the Eastern Siberia, he had radically changed his views and was fascinated by the extreme revolutionary idea embed in peculiar realities of the Russian Empire. Criticizing ideas preferred by Marxist and social democrats, he demanded anarchistic and freedom patterns. He created his own, original revolutionary doctrine, whose the central axis was proletariat, which was to cause revolution giving freedom for all the people enslaved in the country of tsars. After the return from the exile, he lived abroad in Switzerland, but his eccentric ideas found many adherents in Russia in the first two decades of the twentieth century. They had stimulated their own activity within the framework of so-called working conspiracy in times of Revolution in 1905 and other anarchistic and radical groups existing in the area of the Russian Empire.

Feminist deconstruction of the traditional image of women in Qiu Jin’s works

Women’s issues are a significant subject of study in the realm of Chinese literature. In many works, it can be seen to oppose stereotypes or norms imposed on the female gender and to take measures leading to the emancipation of the individual. Such literature is symptomatic of a desire for change in society, that is, the overthrow of the patriarchal system and the introduction of equal rights between the sexes. An example of such prose is the works of China’s first feminist, Qiu Jin, who decided to fight for women’s rights. She was sentenced to death for her revolutionary activities. However, her texts introduced a completely new image of women into the public sphere - different from the one that had been reproduced for hundreds of years in ancient China. The poet chose to endow her heroines with charisma, courage, intelligence and the will to fight for a better life. Her aim was to make women aware of their situation in life, their social role, and to encourage them to leave the male-dominated world. Michalina Koniuk, in the chapter “Feminist Deconstruction of the Traditional Image of Woman in Qiu Jin’s Works”, proposes to analyse Qiu Jin’s works and present that the characters created by the writer oppose and destroy the image of the obedient and uneducated woman that existed in ancient China. First, the social role imposed on women in Chinese society has been described, namely that of obedient daughter, wife and daughter-in-law. The requirements and rules expected of Chinese women have been presented, and how Confucian norms contributed to the belittling of women’s role and position in Chinese society. As the poet was inspired by her own life experiences, Qiu Jin’s life were briefly introduced. Her childhood, during which the first signs of dissatisfaction with the obligations and social norms imposed on girls could be observed. An unsuccessful marriage mobilised the feminist to fight for women’s rights, to oppose the doctrines of Confucius and to leave home and go abroad. This was a great act of courage and at the same time a struggle for freedom and independence in the life of a feminist. That part was followed by an analysis of Qiu Jin’s works, whose female characters exemplify the kind of norms and behaviours that Qiu Jin rebelled against. At the same time, these characters deconstruct the traditional image of a woman and introduce a new one of a strong and independent individual. In this chapter, all poems and quotations have been translated by the author from Chinese into Polish.