This publication is part of the doctoral thesis, written in German with the title: Die Energiepolitik der Russischen Föderation im Zeitraum 2000–2009 und derem Auswirkungen für die energetische Sicherheit der EU (The Russian energy Policy 2000–2009 and its impact on the European energy security). The article presents how the Russian Federation is using its energy resources to achieve their current and future foreign policy goals. The author makes an attempt to explain a numer of fundamental issues relating on the one hand to the main motives of the Russian Federation in this field and on the other to its methods. He also analyses the Russian energy strategy and its negative impact on the energy security of the European Union. As important elements of this strategy the ”Gas-OPEC” as well as the direct and indirect investments of Gazprom in EU are mentioned. It is claimed that the implementation of pipeline projects by the Russian Federation (Nord-Stream and South-Stream) isn’t carried out at the bilateral relations level randomly – Nord-Stream (Russia-Germany), South-Stream (Russia-Italy) – but rather is seen as an opportunity to strengthen Russia’s relations with selected countries. This can be seen as an attempt to make the European Union weaker as a multilateral organization.

The paper addresses problems related to energy policies pursued by Central European countries. It identifies the amounts of energy resources in individual countries in the Visegrád Group as well as the transmission infrastructures they use for natural gas and crude oil. The author discusses projects aimed at diversifying energy supplies which are of key importance to V4 countries. The article also presents relations between those countries in both within the group and bilaterally. When outlining prospects of a V4 energy strategy, the account is taken of such vital aspects as relations with the Russian Federation and the contribution made by Visegrád countries to EU actions designed to develop a single energy market.

The article focuses on the concept of energy diplomacy. It was proved that the European vector of Russia’s current foreign policy is characterized by an ability to use the energy factor as a tool of power and impact to promote and consolidate the Kremlin’s geopolitical interests in Europe. This article reviewed the political technologies of Russian energy diplomacy in the European space such as uncompromising position during negotiations and predetermined before achieving the results, political exchange, technology of “surprise effect”, barbell strategy, pipeline diplomacy, suppression of competitor and others. The issue of EU–Russian energy conflict communication is in the centre of research. It was analyzed the algorithm of Russia’s actions positioning itself as an energy superpower in building up the socalled system of power relationship on the Eurasian continent. It was presented in the article possible options for European states’ effective countering energy expansionism of Russia.

Rola Norwegii dla Unii Europejskiej znacznie wzrosła na początku XXI wieku. Po okresie, kiedy kraj postrzegany był jako relatywnie marginalny outsider w zintegrowanej Europie, teraz jest bezpośrednio związany ze wszystkimi procesami zachodzącymi w Brukseli z powodu udziału w Europejskim Obszarze Gospodarczym. Potencjał Norwegii w oczach państw członkowskich Unii Europejskiej kształtowany jest przez pryzmat jej potencjału energetycznego. Norwegia stała się wiodącym eksporterem gazu do UE, z powodzeniem konkurującym z Federacją Rosyjską. Ten status zależeć będzie w dużym stopniu od polityki Norwegii na Dalekiej Północy – regionie o coraz wyraźniejszym znaczeniu strategicznym. Artykuł ma na celu omówienie głównych ról odgrywanych przez Norwegię w kontekście celów i polityk UE, głównie w dziedzinie energii. Przybliża również strategię Norwegii wobec Dalekiej Północy, perspektywy wydobycia w tym regionie ropy i gazu oraz regionalną współpracę z Rosją.

This article deals with the importance of natural gas as an energy source in Polish energy policy. Its purpose is to analyze the extent to which natural gas can provide for ensuring state energy security. This article covers issues related to the diagnosis of the gas sector in Poland (the most important economic entities, the functioning of the gas market), its role in the national energy strategy and prospects for future gas use. The article points out that natural gas, although important for maintaining and securing state energy security, is, however, not crucial in this regard. Multiannual strategies envisage diversification of the way of generating energy, which means the opportunity for renewable energy sources (RES) and nuclear energy. Natural gas has a secondary meaning in this context.

Evolution of Regulatory Instruments Supporting the Development of Micro-Installations in Poland in 2005–2019 – Selected Issues

This paper analyzes the development of micro-installations in 2005-2019 against the background of changes of the national energy policy, in particular of the introduction and subsequent modifications of the dedicated support schemes. Based on a survey conducted among micro-installations installer companies in 2016, when the future of residential micro-installations was still uncertain, the authors identified key regulatory barriers hindering the growth of the rising market and the effect energy policy changes had on those barriers in 2016-2019. The study is divided into introduction, conclusion and three parts describing the research background, methods and results. The first part contains a description of the energy policy regulations relevant to the development of micro-installations in 2005-2016. The second part presents the methodology and the results of the survey. The third part analyzes the development of micro-installations in 2017-2019 within the context of the identified barriers. In the summary, key regulatory challenges were described and scope for further research on the micro-installation market in Poland was set.

Objectives and assumptions of the policy of the Russian Federation towards Belarus in the area of oil and gas

The aim of the article is to analyze the energy policy of the Russian Federation towards Belarus in 2015–2021. The article focuses on the issues of bilateral relations in the sphere of crude oil and natural gas. Russia uses energy tools towards Belarus in order to force it to deepen its political, economic and military integration. Russia also undertook the task of regulating the principles of further energy cooperation with Belarus.

Economic relations between Russia and China have been growing over the years. Of particular importance in Russia-China economic relations is the gas and oil trade. Russia has the world’s largest natural resources, while China is the world’s largest energy consumer. In 2014, an agreement was reached to build a new gas pipeline and increase gas exports to China. If the planned volume of gas can be exported to China on a stable basis, Russia will be able to supplement some of the economic sanctions imposed by the West. However, there is much uncertainty as to whether China can be a stable export destination for Russia. There is a significant gap in the trade scale between Russia and China and asymmetrical dependence in the relationship between them. In addition, international pipeline projects have substantial financial and time costs, and the two countries; intentions sometimes differ. The purpose of this research is to clarify the current state of trade interdependence between Russia and China and to study whether China can be a stable economic partner for Russia. This paper consists of three main parts, with an introduction and conclusions. The first part explains an overview of trade and asymmetric interdependence between Russia and China. It then analyses the anticipated benefits and vulnerabilities of increased Russian gas exports to China. The third section investigates the uncertainties of China as a gas importer in terms of China’s dependence on Russia.