Contemporary terrorism is characterised by a complex and networked model of operation. While the main objectives of terrorist acts remain the same, the attack environment, tactics and tools are changing. The international community is taking steps to strengthen counter-terrorism systems, but these are peaceful solutions. These models do not consider the conditions of hybrid armed conflicts in which terrorism is an element of combat tactics. It is a relatively new phenomenon and particularly dangerous for the civilian population. The acts of terror in hybrid warfare are not mechanisms with a simple scheme of action, and, as we try to show in this article, they represent a deliberate and broad spectrum of action. Therefore, there is an urgent need to understand terrorism in the context of the threat of hybrid war (especially when terrorist acts complement hybrid tactics or significantly replace conventional tactics). This type of threat must be recognised before achieving its strategic goals. From the substantive point of view, the article studies the problem of terrorism as one of the threats of an armed conflict in Ukraine, commonly known as hybrid war.

As a long-term researcher and active participant in the rescue and humanitarian international aid coordination action, the author undertakes the analysis of changes that have occurred since the inception of the legal basis and international crisis coordination structures, focusing on the increasing role of the European Union Civil Protection Mechanism. The material contains not only the analysis of normative documents and a comprehensive description of the pillars of European civil protection but also practical examples of the European mechanism’s increasing involvement in actions outside the Union over two decades and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The article contains examples of material and hardware-based humanitarian aid implemented for Ukraine and a comprehensive systemic approach to Polish civil protection represented by the State Fire Service in preparation for Ukrainian representatives to be familiar with the European Civil Protection mechanism. Numerous examples of activating the mechanism from the Polish perspective are shown both from the perspective of the aid recipient (fire in Biebrza National Park in 2020) and the donor (Lebanon blast in 2020, earthquake in Nepal 2015, forest fires in France 2022 or support to Ukraine).

In the face of the rapidly changing landscape of armed conflicts around the world, particular attention is paid to the development and application of new forms of warfare, especially in the context of hybrid wars. A characteristic feature of these conflicts is the combination of traditional military methods with modern information and communication technologies, which poses complex challenges for international security. This article focuses on the new challenges posed by contemporary armed conflicts, particularly the hybrid war we are witnessing in Ukraine. The article emphasizes the significant role of advancing technology in hybrid warfare tactics, focusing on including communication and information technologies. These advances have facilitated cyberattacks, disinformation, and rapid coordination in military operations. The conflict in Ukraine serves as a case study, illustrating the use of digital technologies and cyberspace as the main battlefields, making it the first cyberwar on such a scale. The article also examines the broader implications of this warfighting tactic, particularly its impact on the international community and Poland. Due to Poland’s geopolitical situation, the conflict increases the risk of such cyberattacks, posing a significant threat to national security and social stability. The article aims to analyze the consequences of the challenges related to cybersecurity and hybrid warfare activities in Ukraine in the context of the public sector and society in Poland.

The paper presents the characteristics of the rail transport system, including passenger and freight transport during the Covid-19 pandemic. The entities responsible for the safety of the railway sector were presented, among which were the Railway Transport Office, the company PKP PLK S.A., and the Railroad Security Guard, which played the most critical role. The paper presents statistical data for railway accidents and casualties in 2018–2021. It was noted that the Covid-19 pandemic significantly reduced passenger and freight transport. 2021 was the European Year of Railways; it was also an exceptional, demanding, and significant year for changes taking place on the railways. Throughout this time, the Office of Rail Transport promoted rail as a safe, ecological, and comfortable means of transport. Based on statistics and empirical research, the main problems of the railway sector were discussed, and the research hypothesis was verified positively.