Elections in Rome in the Age of the Republic were considered just as important, and voters were as much manipulated in Rome of the time as nowadays. Manipulation was nevertheless easier, than nowadays because of the process of elections. The rule of the aristocracy against the masses, and especially the popular assembly was ensured institutionally. And as votes were cast within centurie, they could continue to make use of all means of manipulation arising from the centuria system against the masses. The campaign took one year, so albeit anybody could enter the elections (subject to meeting the above conditions), actually only those had any chance who did not make a living by working, earning wages, but had their own property. In this paper we shall survey the order of the election of consules and election campaign in the last century of the Republic. (I.) After that we analyse the role of associations (collegia) in the election campaign. (II.) Finally, we shall discuss order of procedure of criminal procedure in Cicero’s age with special regard to the criminal procedure in the cases of bribery, i.e. ambitus. (III.)

Corruption as a disorder of interpersonal communication in the teachings of Pope Francis

The Pope, as the head of the Church and the head of the State, is obliged to undertake appropriate forms of criticism and counteract the improper functioning of the institutions of the Church and the State. The point is that the task of politics and the state is to strive for the common good, and one of its functions is to integrate society. In both cases, there must be undisturbed communication, and this is precisely what corruption is disturbing. In the teachings of Pope Francis, a corruption disorders a communication in a way that it creates crisis of trust and arouses suspicion among the people. It ignores the truth which is a guarantee of clarity and understanding. The corruption, that grows and continues to evolve, is transmissible and it justifies itself by creating its own doctrine. Corruption is a rejection of solidarity. Pope Francis says about halitosis and sclerosis of a spiritual heart. He says about a sin and a corruption. Corruption evokes a social paralysis, which unfortunately is paid for by the poorest. Francis claims that it is not enough to sentence corrupted people, but it is important to pray for their conversion.