„Tribal” and “early State” strongholds in Mazovia (9th–11th c.). State of the art, research questions and interpretive possibilities

The following text is dedicated to issues related to the chronology of early medieval strongholds built in Mazovia between the end of the 9th and the end of the 11th c. It focuses primarily on the state of archeological research.

Archaeological research into the stronghold in Zbucz, Czyże commune, Hajnówka county

The article presents the results of geophysical research carried out in a hillfort in Zbucz from the late 9th and the early 10th centuries. This is the oldest fortified object in this part of Podlasie region which, on top of military functions, served also as a venue of culture and ceremonies.

Central functions of strongholds in early medieval societies

Early medieval strongholds had various functions – e.g. symbolic, geopolitical, political-administrative and administrative-fiscal. Great majority were built after the mid 9th century. In the 2nd quarter of the 10th c. a network of strongholds indicates the nascent Piast state.

Centrální funkce hradišť v raně středověkých společnostech

This paper gives details on a feature uncovered during archaeological research in Ostrów Tumski in Poznań, which yielded crucibles with particles of gold, fragments of gold foil, filigree, rivets, semi-finished products and finished products and beads from decorative stones. The feature was identified as a goldsmith’s workshop and attempts were made to determine the origin of the raw materials and where the artisans came from.

Northern (Scandinavian) and western influence in the centre of the first Piasts’ state

The article deals with the issues concerning an extent and nature of cultural contacts between the early Piasts’ populations and Scandinavia, as reflected by archaeological evidence. The contacts with Carolingian and Ottonian cultures were recorded in sociotopography of leading fortified settlements and also in reception of secular and sacral forms of pre-Romanesque architecture.

Bojná-Valy, an Early Medieval Hillfort in Slovakia. New interpretations

The Early Medieval hillfort Bojná-Valy in Slovakia is among the best known structures of this type in Europe. Until recently, it was attributed central functions but a new hypothesis suggests that it served as a kind of barracks.

The Town and Trade in the Views of Polish Medievalists around 1916 Generation

The author analyses the similarities and differences in the views of Polish medievalists born ca. 1916 concerning the history of Polish and Slavic towns and trade in the Early and High Middle Ages.

The problems with Christianisation of the Early Piast state in the light of archaeological research

Christianization of the Early Piast state was a difficult and long process which gained momentum during the reign of Boleslav Chrobry. Archaeological evidence for this process includes syncretic behavior typical of periods of an enforced religious change.

The use of the horse at the early medieval stronghold of Grzybowo in the light of archaeological sources

The stronghold in Grzybowo is one of the most important early Piast settlements with its origins dating back to 919–923. The construction of a powerful castle by the Piasts remains an object of consideration, given that they already used large strongholds in Giecz, Poznań, and Ostrów Lednicki in the centre of their domain. Grzybowo complemented these four sites, and soon (10th century) Gniezno followed suit. Perhaps the intention was to emphasise their dominion over the area, at the same time allocating specific strongholds to the family members to give them a sense of power. Among the numerous cultural materials recovered during the archaeological excavations are objects connected with the use of horses. Their skeletal remains have been separated in the archaeological material. In the early Middle Ages, the horse played an important military as well as cultural role. Historical sources suggest a significant role played by horses when travelling, in combat, and as the owner’s status symbol. The withers height of the Grzybowo horses suggests that they could have been high thus suitable for riding. The use of horses by the residents of the stronghold and the nearby settlements is supported by pieces of equestrian equipment, including fragments of horseshoes, and elements of bridles made of iron or antlers.