National Identity of Belarusians and Lithuanians: A Comparative Sociological Study

The article is a comparative analysis of the national identity of Belarusians and Lithuanians. The authors present in turn the complex processes of the formation of national identity of two groups, show their specificities in the historical, cultural and social dimensions, point to the differences and similarities, which emerge on the basis of the review of Belarusian, Lithuanian and international social research, conducted in 2010–2022. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Lithuania and Belarus took different paths, which influenced the formation of a more consistent model of national identity for Lithuanians and complex and ambivalent one for Belarusians.

Civil society in Poland after 1989 – dynamics, evaluation and development forecasts

The development of civil society in Poland was one of the goals of the political transformation in 1989. Since then, Polish interest in social issues has grown, although not to the extent expected, not fully realizing its potential. Since 2015, compared to previous years, there seems to be an increasing willingness among Poles to engage in social matters, evident through protest movements and demonstrations, and after 2022, also through involvement in humanitarian aid for refugees from Ukraine. To present the dynamics, evaluate, and outline a forecast for the development of Polish civil society, the article starts by presenting the evolution of the concept and its significance for democracy. It also highlights practical manifestations of civil society functioning. Drawing on statistical research conducted by CBOS and GUS regarding the social engagement of Poles, as well as Elżbieta Korolczuk’s article on the nature of contemporary civil society in Poland, the article analyzes trends and changes in the activation of Poles, pointing out areas of greatest interest. The paper also presents challenges faced by contemporary civil society to effectively outline potential directions of its development.

The idea of women’s equality in the context of human rights and equality policies of Polish political groups

This article analyzes the idea of women’s equality in the perspective of human rights. Starting from the definitional formulation of human rights, through the inclusion of women’s rights to human rights, the legal and social aspects of equality has been indicated and human rights, in the context of the socio-political situation of women in Poland, has been presented. The main research question is whether women’s equality is achieved and to what extent. Are we talking about a practical dimension (implemented) or only a declarative one? To answer this key question, the programs of political groups in Poland and their equality policy were subjected to a comparative analysis. For the purpose of the research, the programs of those groups that obtained parliamentary mandates in the 2019 elections, i.e., Law and Justice, Civic Coalition, and Polish People’s Party, were analysed.

Development of innovative energy hubs – a panacea for difficult times?

The Energy Hub concept can be defined as a central point where multiple energy carriers meet and the corresponding energy flows can be processed, conditioned, stored and ultimately distributed according to demand requirements in an optimal manner. The energy node modeling concept describes the relationship between input and output energy flows and can be used to optimize energy consumption during planning and operation. The hub can store surplus energy generated by photovoltaics for a long time and cover electricity and heat needs, even during periods of high demand or low renewable production. The research goal of the article is primarily to present the concept of innovation in the field of energy and to identify key energy hubs for the development of the modern economy, as also indicated by one of the authors of the innovation concept, Christensen, who treats distributed energy as the so-called a breakthrough innovation, i.e. one that will gradually replace the classic energy system from the market.

Shaping a candidate’s political image in the media o ver the years

Communication is an integral part of human life. It occurs simultaneously on many levels and in many different directions. With the development of new technologies and, consequently, with the development of new ways of reaching a mass audience, the media have taken over the main role in this process. Currently, apart from the information function, the media are also assigned other functions, including: educational, integration, entertainment, opinion-forming, communication, economic and intervention. Aware of this state of affairs, politicians try to respond in all possible ways to the needs visible among society, creating their profile as a kind of consumer product ready for sale. This process is increasingly supervised by a whole team of professionals who monitor the behavior of rival candidates and create a persona that will better and more accurately respond to emerging and dynamically changing social needs.

World War II as a cause of changes in the administrative division of the Catholic Church. The example of the Diocese of Görlitz

War is a huge political change, which, in addition to its social, political, or economic effects, also has other effects. One of these may be the impact on churches and religious associations, especially on their organizational and administrative structures. An excellent example confirming this thesis is World War II, after which the organization of the Catholic Church in Europe was transformed and the Holy See revised the boundaries of archdioceses and dioceses in various countries for almost 50 years. In this article, the author addressed the specific case of the creation of the Diocese of Görlitz, which is the smallest diocese in modern Germany. Through his analysis he showed that the war has a huge impact on the functioning and efficient management in the Catholic Church and causes legal and interpretative difficulties in its administrative division and consequently, the division of competencies, while requiring delicacy, since strictly religious documents can be perceived in an explicitly political way.

October 1956 at the Higher School of Economics in Sopot and the Higher School of Pedagogy in Gdansk

The Higher School of Economics in Sopot and the Higher School of Pedagogy in Gdansk were universities established just after World War II and strongly ideologized in the 1950s. The purpose of this article is to reconstruct the events that took place during the October transition at both universities and also to identify the changes these events led to at party meetings. The introduction discusses the history of the WSE in Sopot and the WSE in Gdansk from the time of their establishment until 1956 and outlines the elements of ideological pressure applied to employees and students. An analysis of the minutes of university bodies (staff meetings, Senates) and party bodies at the universities (POP and KU PZPR) and above the universities (KM PZPR in Sopot, KW PZPR in Gdansk), memoirs of students and employees, and newspaper articles were used to achieve the goal. The changes that took place at the universities were primarily concerned with democratization, greater openness in discussion (while remaining faithful to broad Marxist ideology), changes in the conceptual instrumentarium and criticism of both the USSR and national and university authorities. Virtually all groups comprising the WSE and WSP academic community were involved in the 1956 changes, albeit to varying degrees and in different forms. Employees were more involved at meetings of university and party committees, while students were involved at rallies and in the forums of youth organizations.

The collapse of life plans; paradoxes of combination of historical personality (based on the novel by L. Feuchtwanger “The Ugly Duchess Margarita Maultasch”)

Lion Feuchtwanger is known mainly as the creator of historical novels and voluminous epic canvases. However, all his thoughts are directed to the future. With a certain reservation, we can say that he tried on the past to the realities of his time. Until his death, he was concerned with the key question: what are the paths, prospects and main driving forces of events distant from the 20th century in visual comparison with those changes in German society, which he directly witnessed. In a narrow sense, these were the writer’s attempts to resolve the “damned issues” concerning his own nation. In broad terms – philosophical reflections on the fate of humanity. Thus, his work objectively went beyond the national framework, enriching itself with universal and deeply humanistic content.

Corruption in local government units in Poland – sources and causes

The aim of this paper is to present the problem of corruption in local government entities. It addresses the sources and causes, as well as attempts to completely eliminate corruption from public life. The article serves as a review and introduction to the issues related to corruption in local government, its sources, and causes.

Ideal cities? Examples of implementing the smart city concept in Asia

The article analyzes the issue of an ideal city. The dynamic development of digital technologies leads us to believe that it is thanks to their use that the future cities will be created. At the beginning of the XXI century, the concept of a smart city became popular as a model of transforming the city using technologies to improve the quality of life of its inhabitants. Projects of modern solutions are used more often in Asia than in Europe. Examples include cities built from scratch, but special attention should be paid to Singapore, which is at the top of many rankings. The article discusses all these issues, and the aim is to show the specificity of the functioning of a smart city on the example of Singapore.

Wang Guangyi’s work and its influence on the development of pop art in China

Since the late 1970s, profound changes have been underway across all spheres of Chinese society, encompassing the arts, thereby giving rise to new artistic trends and transformative shifts within the entire artistic tradition. Chinese artists have increasingly asserted themselves on the international stage. Concurrently, as the West became intrigued by Chinese art, two prominent trends – political pop art and cynical realism – were notably burgeoning. Notably, political pop art emerged as a foremost artistic movement in China during the early 1990s. Central to this trend is a predilection for symbolism, serving as a conduit for artists to articulate their sentiments and societal perspectives. Wang Guangyi is widely acknowledged as the seminal figure behind this movement in China. This article delves into Wang Guangyi’s creative evolution and the genesis of political pop art, exploring the antecedents of this novel artistic trajectory, its conceptual underpinnings, and stylistic hallmarks.

Bridging cultures: the universal wisdom of aphorisms

This study explores the versatile nature of aphorisms, examining their linguistic structures, cultural implications, and pedagogical values across diverse languages and societies. Through literary analysis, comparative linguistic studies, and educational surveys, the research uncovers the inherent challenges in translating aphorisms while maintaining their stylistic and cultural essence. Findings reveal that aphorisms not only serve as concise expressions of universal truths and wisdom but also reflect the cultural values, norms, and philosophies of their respective societies. The investigation highlights the significant role of aphorisms in language learning and moral instruction, demonstrating their potential to foster cross-cultural understanding and linguistic appreciation. Aphorisms’ versatility as educational tools enhances learners’ engagement with language and culture, encouraging deeper reflection on ethical and philosophical issues. The study suggests future research directions, including the digital dissemination of aphorisms and their incorporation into artificial intelligence for language processing, underscoring their enduring relevance in a globalized and digitally connected world.

On the question of levels of adaptation of polonism in Russian language

The problem of loanword is one of the traditional ones in linguistic science. In the process of loanword, Polonisms were subject to adaptation at all levels of the language system. Phonetic adaptation of Polonisms involves their adaptation to the norms and laws of phonetics of the Russian language. Becoming the property of the Russian language, Polonisms acquire a Russian graphic appearance. Polonisms have undergone such semantic adaptation as narrowing, expanding and changing meanings. With grammatical adaptation, Polonisms adapt to the rules of Russian grammar and take on the grammatical meaning and grammatical features of the Russian language. As for stylistic adaptation, changes in emotional and expressive coloring and the functional consolidation of words, they are also determined by a number of extralinguistic factors: the status of the source language, established relations in the history of peoples, the perception of cultural values and their hierarchy in the system of others. The work uses a descriptive method in interpreting the material with the involvement of lexicographic sources of different genres.

Paralellism with common word and non-common word in Azerbaijani proverbs and sayings

As a result of many years of observation and testing, proverbs are a collection of words that have been shaped into a certain pattern, reflecting the causes of natural and social phenomena. Proverbs and sayings, as short, laconic means of speech, reveal the origin of events and have a reminiscent feature. In Azerbaijani language, proverbs related to then national customs and beliefs explain certain truths to the younger generations and call them to the right path. The article talks about proverbs as complex syntactic whole, parallelisms with common words and non-common words in Azerbaijani proverbs. Parallel conjunctions play an important role in proverbs and sayings. Although these valuable sayings are short and concise, consisting of several sentence members, the syntactic constructions in them can be attributed to different types of syntactic parallels. These parallels are of great importance in the formation of proverbs by connecting the components of the text with each other.

Stigmatization of the Roma community on the example of kolski county

The purpose of this article is to show the level of stigmatization of the Roma community in kolski county. With the help of the survey conducted, the opinions and degree of correlation of other residents of kolski county regarding their relations with Roma were presented. It was also important to show the causes of deepening stigmatization and its manifestations.

Forgotten Tarnów resident Dr. Marian Wodzinski (1911–1986) and his active participation in uncovering the truth about the Katyn massacre

The text attempts to present the wartime and post-war fate of the Polish intelligentsia who took a direct part in uncovering the Katyn massacre, using the example of Dr Marian Wodziński, a medical doctor. As a forensic doctor, he was appointed (against his will), to examine the exhumation of the victims buried in the Katyn forest. As a forensic expert, he believed that it was not up to him to determine the perpetrators, but to the court that would one day hear the murder case. He remained under pressure from the Germans, and after his return from Katyn to Poland, he was intensively searched by the NKVD and the UB, as an inconvenient, muchknowing witness. Arrested by the NKVD, he was freed thanks to influential people, and when he started to go into hiding, an APB was issued for him. In December 1945, he managed to escape from Poland under the name Marian Cich. He settled in the United Kingdom. The security apparatus recruited his brother Stanislaw to collaborate with him for many years. Despite many attempts, Dr M. Wodziński did not succumb to persuasion and pressure and did not return to Poland, although he missed his homeland very much. He returned to Tarnów after his death, in an urn which was buried in the family grave. Despite his many merits, as well as his patriotic attitude, until recently the figure of Dr M. Wodziński was forgotten. Also in his home town of Tarnów. The text about Dr Marian Wodziński should be – in the author’s assumption – a memento of this luminous figure for contemporary and future generations of Poles, especially the Polish intelligentsia, of which Dr Wodziński was a representative.

Evolution of Russian(Soviet)-Japanese relations from 1699 to 1941

Russian(Soviet)-Japanese contacts have a tradition of over 300 years. The author focuses in the article on a brief exemplification and analysis of unofficial Russian-Japanese contacts since the 18th century and their official relations until the signing of the Treaty of Neutrality between the Soviet Union and Japan in April 1941. In total, four parts of the article are devoted to the analysis, apart from the introduction and conclusion. The first part of the article covers the period of unofficial relations between the two countries, which was characterized by two contradictory tendencies. Russia is pursuing territorial expansion towards the Pacific Ocean, while Japan maintains a policy of voluntary closure to the outside world. The second part deals with the official relationship between them from the Treaty of Shimoda to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. During this period, both countries are guided by a policy of territorial expansion, which led to a war between them. The third part is related to the period from the signing of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty in 1905 to the fall of the Romanov dynasty in 1917. This was the only period of mutual friendship between Russia and Japan. The last part was the years from the February and October Revolutions in Russia to the conclusion of the neutrality pact in April 1941. At that time, one of the external interventions against Soviet Russia was Japan. However, after the Japanese troops were driven out of Soviet territory in the Far East, the two countries establish official diplomatic relations. In the 1930s, mutual relations deteriorated, and in the complicated international situation that existed at the time, Moscow and Tokyo signed the Neutrality Pact in April 1941. At the end of the article, several conclusions were formulated.

Correlation analysis in international relations on the example of selected aspects of German-Polish relations

Correlation analysis is one of the tools that can be used when examining the relationship between quantitative and qualitative variables in international relations. To carry it out, it is important to meet the necessary assumptions regarding a given correlation coefficient. Several of the most used coefficients are presented, broken down into quantitative, ordinal, and nominal variables. The aim of the study was to present the use of correlation analysis on the example of selected economic and non-economic aspects of Polish-German relations. Trade and the structures of the two countries’ European trade partners were shown to be strongly correlated using Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient. In turn, using the chi-square test of independence, it was also found that there is no statistically significant relationship between Germans residing in one of the former German states and maintaining contacts with Poland. A model for subjective analysis of relationships and influences was also proposed. Consequently, it is suggested that statistical methods should be used more frequently in the study of international relations as a complement to classical descriptive methods.

Migration to Poland from across the eastern border in 2015–2023 in the opinion of society, state authorities and representatives of the Catholic Church

Migration is currently one of the greatest global problems, which has to be dealt with not only by states or their communities, but also by non-state entities operating in the world, including churches and religious associations, which in countries such as Poland have a very strong social resonance. The Catholic Church, on the basis of centuries of heritage, benefits in this sphere from the teaching of successive popes, which, rooted in aid attitudes, is a response to the actions of the state, encouraging the faithful to attitudes in line with the Christian spirit. This article, through an analysis of sources - historical documents, discourse and statistical data - answers the question of how the Catholic Church, state authorities and society in Poland have responded to migration into the country from the East in 2015–2023 period, presenting similarities and differences existing in the statements and opinions of state authorities, Church representatives and society in Poland.

Foreign contacts of the underground Toruń Region of NSZZ “Solidarność” in the years 1981–1989

The introduction of martial law on December 13, 1981 resulted in the formation of an opposition underground almost immediately throughout the country. Support from abroad was of great importance for its functioning. This article raises the issue of the activities of the underground Toruń structures of “Solidarity” in the context of aid coming from the West. Over the course of the 1980s, the Toruń underground received printing equipment, computers, parts for radio transmitters, printing ink, money, émigré publications, etc. An important aspect of foreign contacts was the creation of a specific corridor for the secret distribution of copies of the Toruń underground press to “Radio Free Europe”. Articles from this press were later read in radio broadcasts broadcast to Poland.

“Poland” and messianism in the writings of Sister Helena Rafaela Majewska CSA, Vilnius Apostle of Divine Mercy

Helena Rafaela Majewska CSA (1902–1967) infiltrated the habitless congregation of the Sisters of Angels. Mystic; propagator of God’s mercy; penitent and collaborator of Fr. Michał Sopoćko – Vilnius confessor of Sister Faustyna Kowalska; continuator of her message. Majewska left a spiritual Diary from the years 1941–1943, in which a patriotic and messianic theme appears, the author will appear as an element of the message of mercy and the perspective of the fate of Poland revealed to her by God. The texts constitute their important sources, from which come the records of the Way of the Cross of the Polish Nation, where the mystic assigned the events of the subsequent World War II to the emergency station. The analysis of Majewska’s spiritual records is valuable both from the point of view of theological and historical sciences. In the first case, they reveal the obligation of patriotism in the formation and experience of religion in the early 20th century and during the Second Mandatory War. In the second one – revealing the elements of Polish messianism and allowing the use of interpretation of historical events at the time they occurred.

Security management of the National Museum in Cracow

When I think about a museum, many different threads come to mind, including memories from both my childhood and adult life. In the past, school trips were often organized to museums, where for the first time for many it was an opportunity to encounter a large amount of art and works gathered in one place. Although as a child it is difficult to evaluate and develop deeper reflections on the work you are learning, contact with exhibits from an early age teaches you proper respect for learning about them, emphasizing how important they are for everyone. The topic of museums is also often reflected in film art, where these places often become targets for thieves who plan in a sophisticated way over a long period of time to obtain a given exhibit. Often silently, bypassing all security measures, so that the museum only learns about this fact when the morning shift comes to work, and the works are already far outside the museum, and this security issue is the subject of this work.

Judge’s assistant de lege lata and de lege ferenda. Practical problems of assistance to adjudicators

This article draws attention to the modern, practical problems of the justice system, taking into account the profession of a judge’s assistant. Defines its tasks and unclear grounding in Polish law. Points out disproportion of requirements. Presents the problem of staff shortages and their consequences, and shows a potential remedy. Highlights the growing problem of inefficiency and lengthiness of the justice system.

Patterns and experiments: Compositional structures in Japanese popular music

This work is a study of Japan’s popular music and its theoretical aspects, as well as an analysis of the influence of jazz music on its development. It begins by defining Japanese music, then the history of music in Japan in the 20th century is outlined. Subsequent chapters are devoted to music theory, with particular emphasis on comparing the use of intervals and scales in Western and Japanese music. The work discusses the theory of Japanese scales, analyzing their structure and function in the context of modern Japanese music. The next chapter focuses on the popular music in Japan in the 21st century, while identifying its characteristic features. Special attention is given to the influence of jazz on the development of Japanese popular music and its presence in today’s musical culture. The final chapter compares mainstream popular music from Japan, Poland and the USA, showing the differences and similarities in styles, structure and use of musical elements. The paper ends with conclusions emphasizing the importance of understanding cultural and theoretical context in music research.

The article analyses the peculiarities of cooperation between one of the key integration associations of the modern international system – the European Union (EU) and the African Union (AU). The historical retrospective of AfricanEuropean relations has been depicted. The key directions of the AU and EU partnership, which ensure intercontinental cooperation in various spheres of life, have been identified. The objectives of the Joint Africa-EU Strategy, which forms the basis of their cooperation, have been described. Emphasis has been placed on the political dimension of AU-EU relations, in particular the summits of the organizations and their results. The security issue in AU-EU relations has been analyzed. The economic direction of the joint activities of the African Union and the European Union and the challenges of trade cooperation have been studied. Climate and energy cooperation between the African and European continents has been considered. Migration issues and population mobility policy as components of AU-EU interaction have been characterized. Peculiarities and priorities of AU-EU cooperation in the field of innovation have been analyzed. The key challenges faced by the AU and the EU in the process of intercontinental partnership development have been outlined. The main prospects of cooperation between the African Union and the European Union, which have an impact on the stability of the geopolitical landscape of today, have been highlighted. A format of partnership that would be effective for both the European and the African integration associations has been determined, taking into account the challenges and perspectives of cooperation.

The article explores the evolving landscape of European energy security amidst geopolitical tensions and market dynamics. Despite the European Union’s efforts to protect consumer interests, access to its energy market has been restricted for nations disregarding international law, leading to shifts in pricing dynamics and trade patterns globally. Notably, market participants like African nations and Kazakhstan have gained influence, while China and India face challenges in their dealings with Russian energy. The study assesses the effectiveness of strategies adopted by energy market participants and their implications for investor sentiment, using Axelrod tournament simulations to analyse strategic choices. Insights from the competition reveal the advantage of active strategies and the importance of readiness for unexpected moves. Furthermore, the article examines the interaction of strategies within the energy market and their impact on competitiveness. It also presents the inclusion of crude oil within optimal investment portfolios and discusses the temporary retreat of European and American investors from renewable energy markets in vulnerable regions like Africa. The findings suggest a decline in investor interest in renewable energy ventures outside the EU, highlighting the complex interplay of geopolitical factors, market dynamics, and investor sentiment in shaping Europe’s energy security landscape.

The article refers to the characterization of civic activities in the virtual space carried out by young Africans from Generation Z. The purpose of the article is to present the relationship between the level of technological development and civic engagement, using African countries as an example. The first part of the article presents key data on the development of ICT in Africa: internet adoption, data relating to the number of mobile devices, social media use and other sociodemographic and economic indicators. The rest of the article shows examples of digital civic activities in various African countries. Possible forecasts for the development of such activities in the future are also indicated.

The Spanish-Moroccan border in Ceuta and Melilla is one of the most complex border regions in the world, where historical, political, socio-economic, and migratory issues converge. This article analyzes the main security challenges arising from the location of these enclaves and their impact on international relations between Spain and Morocco. The research hypothesis posits that the primary security problems stem from the unique status of Ceuta and Melilla as enclaves, leading to specific migratory and political challenges. The article employs systemic and historical methods to analyze these challenges. It is confirmed that the unique geographical and historical position of Ceuta and Melilla is the source of specific security challenges, requiring coordinated and multifaceted management approaches. The article emphasizes the need for international cooperation and consideration of local and global aspects to ensure stability and security in the region.

Sociopolitical divisions in Africa in light of the concepts of Seymour M. Lipset and Stein Rokkan

The main subject of research carried out by the author is socio-political cleavages in Africa. The aim of the article is to show the socio-political divisions that exist in Africa. The category of a socio-political cleavage is considered to be the one which properly reflects the diversification that comes into being between the social and political sphere. The most important cleavages functioning in African countries are ethnic cleavege and religious cleavage. This is due to the complex ethnic structure existing in African countries.

The EU treaty law distinguishes competences between the EU and its Member States. The scope of EU competence is constantly growing. The governments of the Member States wanted to ensure their decisions in matters of security. However, this area of international affairs is beginning to be dominated by EU institutions. It causes problems and conflicts of competence. An example is the issue of the allocation of immigrants between EU Member States and various concepts of the new EU external border security system. The division of these competencies should therefore be determined precisely. The lack of these regulations weakens the EU’s integrity and threatens to break it down. This hypothesis is confirmed by Brexit and the current political and social situation in several EU countries. e.g. in Poland and Hungary. The purpose of the article is to indicate the current legal status and postulates de lege ferenda of acquis communautaire.

The current events related to the hybrid and now full-scale war in Ukraine have led the Ukrainian political leadership to realize the need for developing multivector international cooperation, which was previously concentrated mainly on the countries of the Global North. The African continent, due to its active economic and demographic development, has become a region of intense competition among many world powers, including former colonial metropoles, the EU, the U.S., as well as China, Russia, and Turkey. The Russian-Ukrainian war has deepened the food crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa and intensified Russia’s use of private military companies in certain states. Ukraine is fully capable of offering African countries cooperation in various fields—from trade to joint production of machinery, leveraging expertise in IT, cybersecurity, and the military sector. The recognition of the need to change its approach to the region has led to the development of several strategic documents, and attention to their implementation will yield both economic and political dividends for Ukraine and African states alike.

Legal support for war refugees from Ukraine as a factor influencing the lawyer’s brand equity

The article raises the problem of the relationship between the brand equity of a law firm and the provision of free legal support to war refugees from Ukraine. For its purposes, in-depth interviews were conducted on a sample of 15 employees and owners of law firms that, after the outbreak of the war in Ukraine, provided free legal assistance to war refugees for at least three months, as well as surveys on a sample of 1,000 clients of the above-mentioned law firms. The employees were asked what their motives were when providing help. Clients were asked what guided them when choosing a specific law firm and whether the fact of supporting refugees had any influence on this decision. The results obtained during in-depth interviews show that people employed in law firms are aware that marketing activities constitute significant support in acquiring clients. However, they are carried out without proper identification of the target group and their needs, and, consequently, without preparing an offer that should respond to these needs. In turn, the results of surveys conducted among the law firm’s clients showed that although respondents consider free legal assistance for refugees to be necessary, it cannot in any way be considered a factor influencing their decision to choose a law firm.

The genesis of the criminalization of sexual crimes committed during armed conflicts. Theoretical and practical problems of administering justice. Discussion of selected issues

Shaped over the centuries, the laws and customs of war have always included rules based on the principle of chivalry, a sense of humanity directed at protecting non-combatants. Most of the victims of today’s armed conflicts are civilians, mainly women and children. The problem of rape and sexual violence during armed conflict particularly affects women. Rape committed in war is used to terrorize the population, break up families, destroy communities, sometimes also to change the ethnic structure of successive generations. Sexual violence is a violation of international humanitarian law of armed conflict, but we have often seen in history that this issue has been passed over in silence or treated as a side effect of war. Special attention should be paid to the criminalization of sexual violence. The UN Security Council only recognized the problem of sexual violence in armed conflict in 1992, when news of the mass rape of women and girls in the former Yugoslavia circulated around the world. In December 1992, the UN adopted a declaration that “the mass, organized and systematic detention and rape of women in Bosnia and Herzegovina, particularly Muslim women, is an international crime that must be prosecuted” (UN Security Council, 1992). Unfortunately, during and in the immediate aftermath of conflicts, it remains extremely difficult to bring justice to perpetrators of violence against women.

Operational work in penitentiary unit – part 1

The issue of operiational work carried out in penitentiary units has for years aroused considerable controversy, opposition and disputes both among representatives of the prison systemand among representatives of science. Undoubtedly, this state of affairs was influenced by the negative experiences of the prison reality of the Polish Peopless Republic and the inglorious role played therein by special units established to conduct operational activities. Due to the breadth of the topic of operational work in prison on the one hand, and the limited scope of this publication on the other. The whole thing was divided into four independent parts. The first part will present the framework, forms and methods of conducting operational work in the years 1944–1989. In the second part, I will present how the situation in this area developed after the change of the political system and in the conditio of the new socio-political situation determined by the requirements of a democratic state of law. The third part will be devoted to the analysis of currently applicable institutions that regulate the conduct of operational and reconnaissance activities in prisons and detention centers. Finally, in part four, I will assess the individual allegations presented by opponents denying the admissibility of conducting operational work in a penitentiary institution.

The Decalogue and modern criminal law

The ten words written on stone tablets, given to Moses and established as God’s positive law in the pages of the Old Testament, should be read as a signpost for the believer. The precepts and prohibitions of the Decalogue: “Thou shall not kill, Thou shall not steal, Thou shall not bear false witness” are typified as crimes in various legal systems today. The following article deals with the interdependencies and differences between the Divine plan and man-made law. Restrictions under the laws of the Decalogue and the ‘deterrent’ norms of criminal law do not restrain human freedom, but serve the good of all mankind. Man can live without the law, but the law does not function without man as a subject of rights and obligations. Therefore, it is necessary to realise that the Ten Commandments and their consequences in modern criminal law are part of the axiological system and always serve the good of the individual.