Cracow The City imprisoned in history or drawing from it?

This article is a synthetic image of Cracow in the years 2003–2007. The metropolis which is the regional and international center, in which social, economical and cultural functions coexist together. The city of great potential ingrained by history. Housing in the countries, which in result of the transformation of systems have entered from the central controlled economy into free market, requires general reforms and changes, which unfortunately do not get social acquiescence. Cracow, as well as other historical cities of the eastern bloc – Vilnius, Bratislava, Leipzig or Prague – has been marked by totalitarianism. The last twenty years can be described as the new beginning of the city. The disproportionate rise of the territorial development, chaotic management of investments, inconvenient industry and gaps in law are at the moment huge problems for the city. The key matter is the renovation of historical districts and by this I do not only mean the Old Town but also old apartment blocks, which need some additional investments in order to change them to modern housing estates. As important is using the potential of postindustrial plots for the future housing needs of the society. The next few years is the time, in which we will learn how well we can handle these problems.

The role of tradition in multi-generational rural families’ life in Malopolska

Family tradition is the essential value of upbringing. It shapes a specific atmosphere for each common family and style of house by decision about its individual character. The awareness of family cultural heritage, own roots of tradition has got an essentially significant for individual’s life. It allows to develop by means of building into culture, among it into tradition, customs and folk customs usually preserved by nations, social groups and families. A family takes up in social transmission. Thanks to it heritage and traditions are remembered and revived. According to Ziemski transmission is “communication between this what was and this what is”. Mentioned revival happens, when the contact between sender (former generations) and receiver and such contact takes place because of social institutions like family. A child gradually, by his upbringing and education receives cultural heritage from their parents, who transmit him his own life experiences, among them these, which they had received form their parents. Presented researches was carried out in three Malopolska communities – Dębno, Wieliczka i Zabierzow. 40 multigenerational families were selected in each community in these researches. Interviews with questionnaire were carried out with them, the questionnaire was devided into three parts directed to the representatives of three generations: grandparents, parents and grandchildren. All in all 360 people were examined. Presented results constituted the attempt of answers for question about essential role of tradition in multi-generational rural families’ life, and about the range of customs keeping which are inherited from previous generations, too. For straight majority of respondents the role of tradition in their life is big or very big (all in all for almost 90% people). It is easy to see the little degeneration of tradition, which are typically secular, while customs strictly connected with religious practices are cultivated also with big engagement like in the past. It’s seen, as parish priest says: “in solemn experience of religious and festive events”. Results of researches related to perceiving festivals in multigenerational generational families find the reflection in mentioned yet interview with parish priest. He said that, “certainly for rural family on the first place religious experiences matter. A big attendance in churches in taking part in masses and very numerous saint sacraments receiving, although certainly Christmas are more family than Eastern ones. Summarizing, one can affirm that festivals and traditions connected with them still play a very essential role in rural multigenerational families’ life from the territory of examined Malopolska communities.

On the turn of the XX-th and XXI-st centuries in Switzerland Confideration a Jurisdiction reform was done. That reform (The Project Neue Bundesgerichte) aimed to: creating new Federal Courts to consider • criminal, civil and administrative cases etc. – and at the same time helping the Federal Court (Bundesgericht);

• strengthening and expansion of the legal protection of citizens (simplification of the Court access process);
• standardization of Civil and Criminal Law. Creation of new Federal Criminal Court was novum in the farming of Switzerland’s Federal Administration of Justice because before the mentioned above reform there was only in Switzerland the Federal Court and separated from its structure the Federal Tribunal of Insurance.

The Federal Criminal Court began its activity on the 1-st April 2004 in Bellinzona. It is a Common Criminal Court in Switzerland, stated in institution preceding the Federal Court if only the Law does not exclude claiming to the Federal Court. In the Structure of this Court it is possible to mark off the Penal Chamber (states in Criminal Cases, Criminal Administrative cases and also in those ones concerning rehabilitation applications) and the Chamber of Complaints (hears complaints concerning legal help, means of under duress etc.). Fundamentally the Court states in full strength of three members, though it is possible to increase its strength up to fire judges.

The aim of this analysis is to explore the meaning of leadership in the socalled young democracies. The problem is extremely important, although rarely considered in scientific studies. The nature of the political power in post-communist societies cannot be interpreted accurately from the perspective of developed Western democracies. 1989, a breakthrough year, brought, in addition to institutional and economic changes, changes in public awareness. With the changes in public awareness came the opening to the new mechanisms, both the market and the political ones, and, most important of all, the highly articulated need for “normality”. The good leader is the most important part of every transformation. In Poland Lech Wałęsa can be called “leader of transformation” but there are still a lot of questions connected with his leadership, his life and charismatic personality.

Modernistic presentation of good and evil in three concepts of: • Antoni Lange • Tadeusz Miciński • Stanisław Przybyszewski

Most prominent representatives of Polish modernism: Antoni Lange, Tadeusz Miciński, Stanisław Przybyszewski assimilated various philosophies for their needs, including Hindu philosophy with nirvana and reincarnation. In their search for the meaning of existence, truth about the world and man they preferred their own hierarchy of values. They considered art, the work of the artist coming from the subconscious depths of psyche, as the highest value and an individual soul as a treasury of those values. Presenting human conflict with fate they played a Luciferic game against life and the world. Evil was treated as an impulse to selfcreation of a complete human being. The artist was granted the right to freedom of the soul and the liberty to individually express the soul. Przybyszewski placed the artist beyond good and evil. He loathed the rules of social life and bourgeois morality. He undermined the faith in any social utopia. In 1918 he fought for the Polish cause in Gdańsk – he besame a community man. Lange thought that an artist cannot stroll outside the society and nature. He created a utopian Słońcogrod (Sun-city) with no egoism, suffering or evil – a spiritual community of astrals. Miciński wanted to combine the authority of art with a social, moral and patriotic transformation program. He created a garden-city of material and spiritual transformation with a pattern of a „new human” – he strived to bring together in practice the conflicting values of good and evil. Even though none of them created an organized philosophical synthesis that would answer metaphysical questions, still they were setting out ethical instructions for a full redefinition of the knowledge on man and the world. They created theories of cognition, esthetic concepts based on individual morality. They became symbols of original style of thinking, writing and philosophy, attributable only to them. They dreamed of a universal artwork (gesamtkunstwerk) „opus magnum” that would be the sum of knowledge, values, experiences and reflections of the period – a synthesis of the arts in the cognitive and axiological aspect. This was expressed by A. Lange in his essay Modernity, „Tygodnik Ilustrowany” 1890. „Modernism wants an artwork that would become universal, that would include past, future and present, that would be atchitecture, painting, music and poetry, epic, lyric and drama; that would combine the Bible and Zend Avesta, the Iliad and the Divine Comedy, the history of don Juan and don Quixote, Faust and Hamlet, legend of the ages, human comedy and the history of the Rougon-Macquart family; in which sacra profanis mix; that would be a religion and cosmogony, philosophy and psychology, sociology and technology, mysticism and poetry, analysis and synthesis all at once; that would not only be a copy of nature but nature itself; that would merge so perfectly that the border between art and nature would disappear”.

Preventing Suicide in the Prison Environment

This article is an attempt to place an individual committing suicide into a scientific framework and to put the problem into medical terms. However, it seems that suicide is a social issue, and needs to be addressed as a social pathology. Suicide is the most common cause of death in penal institutions and that is the reason why the main task of the prison staff is prevention by means of learning to recognize individuals and situations that pose such danger and carrying out effective interventions. The article presents the result of research into factors that increase the likelihood of suicide with a verification of a high-risk groups. The research indicates that the incarcerated as a group have a much higher suicide rate in comparison to those who enjoy freedom. Another important point for consideration is the existence of a policy and procedures of identification of prisoners who are prone to commit suicide, with the inclusion of rules of conduct in such cases in a penal institution or the lack of thereof. What is more, the discussion on the issues connected with suicide prevention should be preceded by a study of the profile of the suicides themselves, which would greatly improve the chance of diminishing their numbers. The importance of this article lies in indicating research of personality traits of individuals prone to suicide and of a method of preventing suicide among the incarcerated.

The use of Ward’s method for assessment of unemployment in spatial sense

One of the largest economic and social problems of modern world is phenomenon of unemployment. It appeared together with development of free market economy and is integrally bounded with technological progress, consequently which is to replace work of human hands with work of machines. In this paper is undertaken an effort to characterise population of unemployed in powiats of the Małopolskie voivodeship in spatial sense. To separate concentrations of objects it was used agglomeration method of grouping – Ward’s method. Function of criterion of joining of units into groups is sum of squares of distances of particular units from groups’ centres of gravity, of which they belong to. Unemployment rate in powiats of the Małopolskie voivodeship showed large spatial diversification, varying between 16,4% in dąbrowski powiat and 5,6% in bocheński powiat in year 2008. Bocheński powiat was distinguished by the highest interest of unemployed women and people with University education, against the background of remaining powiats of the Małopolskie voivodeship. Separation of group of powiats in voivodeship characterizing by similar scale and intensity of certain problems, occurring on local labour market, indicates possibility of exchanging experience, cooperation between institutions servicing labour markets and local authorities. Despite changes, which have taken place over a span of years, still most endangered with unemployment in powiats of the Małopolskie voivodeship are: women, young people (under 24 years old) and people with low education.

The global crisis that has hit almost all economies all around the globe since 2008 is without precedent in post-war world economic history. As other global economies also main European countries are in the deepest recession since the 1930s, with real GDP projected to shrink by 4,1% in 2009. One can say it is the sharpest contraction in the history of the European Union. Although signs of improvement have appeared recently, recovery remains uncertain and some countries suffer from consequences of crisis more than others. Among them are Spain, Portugal and Greece. As an effect of economic problems all three economies have to challenge with negative real GDP growth, high unemployment rate, growing both budget deficit and general government gross debt. All this negative effects of economic crisis slow down the process of growth and create problems in labour market.

An overview of migration theories in the light of current labour-related travels

The article presents an overview of migration theories considering five basic criteria used for dividing the classification of the discussed phenomenon. The concepts of economic, sociological and geographical migration were discus sed in detail. The importance of migration movements in the context of states and societies development was indicated with particular emphasis on labourrelated travels in the aspect of emerging global market. The overview of migration theories indicates a considerable complexity of the problem connected with people’s mobility, shows it multi-aspect character, at the same time signaling positive and negative consequences of the discussed processes. One of the crucial characteristics of the phenomenon is globalization of migration, which causes an increase in the number of countries experiencing this process and these states becoming mainly the sending countries. Globalization makes possible international flow of people and capital which none of the countries is able to control. A growing number of people decides to cross the border and the number of persons having more than one citizenship is also increasing. Numerous persons find employment in international corporations – therefore the difficulties to assign a character of individual group migration to the framework of definite scientific theory.

The paper of Wioletta Knapik “The flood-threat. Sociological aspects of the problem” discusses problems concerning risks and its meaning for the contemporary society. The risk appears in all areas of the social life. The risk concerned in the past mainly natural threats. The contemporary world is determined of dynamic development of globalization processes; it creates the threat for the security and the equilibrium in the ecosystem. In the life of the society of XXI age, which Ulrich Beck called a society risks, prevalence different threats. Not only the nature, but also the man creates situations which is dangerous. On the basis of research concerning flood experiences of Uszew inhabitants was discuss the problems of the flood-threat.

Unemployment and enterprise in communities in the małopolska province

The peper presents the problem of unemployment in the context of extensive in communities in the Małopolska province. For this purpose it was used synthetic indicator with the help of one of non-model methods formulas, which is additive aggregation function.

The article attempts to evaluate the arrangement of the instruments of planning to manage the development of the Małopolska region. Studies were carried out with the purpose to assess in what level programs and plans passed in Małopolska could be acknowledged as operative in relation to the development strategy of the Małopolska region. The assessed documents were passed by the Province Assembly or Managing Council of Małopolska region from the moment of forming the local government of the province (yr. 1999) up to the middle of 2009 (period of actualization of the current Strategy). Amongst methodological attempts to the studies an application was made within scholars as well as practitioners of the region as their assessment of the scale of how operative the Strategy of Development of the Malopolska Region is.

Challenges concerning reforms of Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) connected with mountain areas and environmentally sensitive areas

In this study were made efforts to raise an issue of creating new policy for mountains areas, environmentally sensitive areas, and especially regarding to agriculture. All of them have been the subjects of the European Parliament debates. An overview analysis of documents, referring to the problems of farming, particularly to arable farming in mountains areas was conducted. The basic document for analysis was a project of the European Parliament resolution, concerning the situation and perspectives of agriculture in mountain areas. Moreover, there were analysed documents, comprising opinions of the Commission for the Regional Development and justification of the project of a resolution, as well as the project of report on Common Agricultural Policy after 2013. These documents originated on the basis of debates concerning CAP reforms, and the extent and methods of supporting agriculture and disadvantaged areas, including mountains areas, in the new economic projection for the years 2013–2020. They pointed to the necessity of retaining direct payments, as an important instrument of sustainable use of agricultural land. Financial recompense for the outlays on organic farming and sustained use of permanent grasslands are of particular importance. A necessity of improving current system of assistance for mountains areas and seeking new economic instruments in this area was pointed out. Such instrument may be used to isolate and support environmentally sensitive areas. They will constitute suplement to areas connected with ecological network – Nature 2000, as well as other areas protected by the nature conservation act. There is also important from the economic and production side, that introducing in that areas new restrictions for production, were compensated by some adequate, additional payments, as that restrictions have negative effects for husbandry of many Polish farmers.

Ever since Poland joined the UE, Polish agriculture has been facing new challenges. The process of creating new vision of future agriculture has begun. Unfortunately this vision does not entirely reflect the reality. There are two basic questions: who should take part in creating the vision of the countryside future, and how the farmers themselves perceive the development of their farms. Only after answering them we can determine what should be decided to help agricultural development. The article also points out the important role of social education for the farmers.

Social capital as a faktor in economic and social development of rural areas

The author presents social capital as an intangible faktor which is of great importance both in economy and social fife. Six elements of social capital are discussed: participation in networks, reciprocity, trust, social norms, a sense of the “commons”, co-operation and being proactiv. The author also discusses theories explaining the influence of intangible factors, including social capital, on development. In the closing part of the paper, the author describes the influence of social capital on social development.

On the basis of source documents and statistical data the article presents basic instruments of agrarian policy applied in Bielarus. The role and importance of agricultural sector in the country economy were emphasized. Analyzed were the main kinds of support for agricultural producers and the outlays on agriculture. The analysis of the policy and government measures effect on internal prices were presented on the basis of main agricultural products. In result of the investigations it was concluded that both the instruments of agrarian policy and a number of programmes for the development of agricultural sector are used in Bielarus. They are copies of the instruments and programmes implemented in the framework of the European Union Common Agricultural Policy. Adapted to the reality of the mostly centrally managed economy. The role of agriculture is evidenced also by the fact that in comparison with GDP, total budgetary expenditure and total arable area, expenses on agriculture are higher than in the other countries in this region and are growing faster than agricultural gross output and its added value.

Continuing the economic issues of Wierzchosławice demesne in the following issue of Krakow Historical Studies magazine; garden, orchard and hop cultivation, meadow economy and variety of farming have been discussed. Gardens together with orchards occupied from 0% in Sierachowice to 2,7% in Ostrow that is about 0,88% of the whole dominion. They played the most important role in the economy only in XVI and in the first half of the XVII century. A decrease in that kind of cultivation came in the second half of XVII and in XVIII century although in the second half of XVIII century a slight improvement can be seen. The harvest satisfied mainly the needs of the court officials, less the servants. Rarely it was put on sale. There were several gardens in villages on the Wierzchosławice Grange, situated in various places e.g. behind the cowshed or stable. Gardens, surrounded mainly by lathes and also by fences, were divided into small field called ‘lechy’, ‘leszki’, ‘zagony’, ‘kawałki’. In the XVII and XVIII century the biggest part of the garden was assigned for cabbage farming which was the number one among all vegetables. Sometimes it occupied half of its area and being an important component of the local people’s diet. On second place were carrots. A lot less ground but evenly divided was assigned for onion, parsnip, parsley, poppy and pea together with so called ‘turkish peas’ cultivation.

In the article issues connected with the role of cultural heritage in tourism development have been presented. It was shown on the example of four Malopolska communities located in the area of Cracow Province: Michałowice, Skała, Zabierzow i Zielonki. First, on the base of literature the essence of cultural heritage has been presented. The author presented definitions of this process and showed different divisions of such understood heritage. Secondly, many elements of cultural and historical heritage connected with four mentioned above communities have been presented, too. In these groups both heritage connected with material sphere and immaterial one have been characterized. Thirdly, the results of researches carried out in County Offices in these four communities have been presented. The researches carried out by means of interviews with clerical workers have been shown in the empirical part of this article.

Agriculture in the southern Poland is economically weaker than agriculture in the other parts of the country. Farms located in the south have apparently smaller areas than the national average. They have also poorer resource base necessary for production. Agricultural input supply and reached economic results translate into investment activity. For a definite majority of production types investment outlays total in the years 2006–2008 were higher in Poland than in the Malopolska and Pogorze Regions. Only the E type farms (permanent crops) and H type (granivorous animals) in some years realized higher than the national average investment expenses. For most agricultural types the net values of investments determining the real development of farms also look disadvantageous. Both in the region and in the country farms of most production types realized investment expenses on a low level which did not even cover the depreciation costs. Therefore, in these entities an actual decapitalization of production assets took place. Net investments assumed positive values only in the entities specializing in bovine production (in the region it was F-type – dairy cows, whereas in Poland total F type – dairy cows and type – animals fed in grazing systems. Markedly lower economic results and indicators characterizing investment activity allow to conclude that at maintaining current tendencies, the disproportions in the commercial agriculture between the Malopolska and Pogorze, and the other regions in Poland will be deepening.

This paper mainly aims at attempting to justify the need for creating research and development centres in all big, and – if possible – also in medium-size production enterprises; it also presents the influence of the attained economic effects by those centres on economic growth. All such research and development centres should directly cooperate, especially with universities of technology and economics, in conducting research and experiments, and developing and launching projects, and later on supporting them in their production and developmental stages. Research, technological and organisational undertakings are fundamental to the activity of such centres. In justified cases it is also appropriate to implement some technological and organisational undertakings in the production and postproduction processes in a given case. Those undertakings in specific parts of the production process and their operation also generate development and economic effects. It should be clearly stated that as a result of employing both outstanding researchers and highly qualified personnel there emerge real possibilities to develop projects of new technological centres which once having been operational become competitive in foreign markets. The accomplishment of most undertakings of that kind will directly affect the growth of gross domestic product and, broadly speaking, gross national product. One can assume in a model presentation that in highly favourable conditions when such centres at the same time employ outstanding researchers and other highly qualified employees, one development leads to another, of course at the assumption that no negative events and processes intervene. However, the reality is complicated and it generates both advantageous and disadvantageous economic effects. Nevertheless, during the economic development in which positive effects outnumber the negative ones we witness the growth of gross domestic and national product, at the assumption that the inflow of the balance of negative gross national product from foreign countries does not worsen dramatically.

The state of implementation of universal compulsory education in Poland, in the early twenties was influenced by: the under-developed network of primary schools, a low level of their organization, law number of teachers, as well as difficult economic situation in the country. The number of schools grew very slowly, definitely too slow to fully achieve the aims of the Decree of the compulsory education. In the years 1918–1922 organizational bases of universal education were established, which survived largely unchanged till 1932. At the level of school organization changes occurred very slowly. Small progress was marked in the area of improving the organizational level of schools. But the rural areas it was still rather low. However, it should be noted that, despite the slow growth in the numer of children realizing the principle of universal education, still a large part of them did not benefit from schooling. This had an impact on children’s frequent involvement of the field work, lack of financial resources for clothing, shoes, school aids, often long distances from the school, the difficult weather conditions, especially low level of awareness among the rural population of their children’s need for education. Common causes of the low attendance in schools were: the parents’ poverty and ignorance, lack of sense of duty concerning both the parents and the children, defective system of reclaiming fines for school absence and children’s love for vagrancy. A large part of the children who had already been recorded, particularly in eastern provinces, partly in central and southern provinces, not always attended to school or left it for various reasons before to its completion. The level of universal education implementation had a significant decrease in the number of compulsory school age children in the school years 1921–1928. The teachers were trying to counteract the low turnout. The presence of students was systematically recorded in the class register book, and the problem of children who miss school was a frequent topic of meetings with their parents. Education authorities also began to place great emphasis on the presence of students at schools, offering various solutions including a penalty. Such a solution would have had little effect, however, since it would have involved the families of the poor and the unemployed. The decreasing numer of children in connection with a slow increase in the number of children attending school resulted in some improvement in the implementation of the compulsory education. The condition of compulsory schooling could only seemingly be optimistic. Since the school year 1927–1928 general education came in greater numbers of compulsory school age children as a result of the increased birth rate in the first postwar years. The increase in the number of compulsory school age children and the beginning of economic crisis negatively affected the situation in Polish education. Growing number of population for the state authorities and educational institutions should not have been surprising, because in June 1926 census of children was conducted. Increasingly small number of classrooms and teachers was marked. Serious reductions of financial expenditure on education were responsible for that state. As a result of these measures decreased prevalence of teaching occurred.

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