Psychological determinants of political leadership, political personality and its influence on decision processes

The category of political personality is one of the most important but the least known in political sciences. In common use it’s treated as a synonym of character (especially strong one). Moreover there are so many different definitions, that everyone can subjectively choose one. Political psychology do not prefer using instant definition, because theories are more useful to describe the phenomena of personality. There are many factors that influence onto personality and part of them can be shown as most important on political market. The age of the leader, his/her health condition, sex, attitude, threats etc. are some of them.

We can say that political behavior is motivated by genetic heritage, biological and psychological power. The leadership can be treated as a process or strong relation between the leader and his/her followers. It’s associated with the personality but also with social structure. Making decisions is the aim of every leader but only some of them can lead this process successfully (to the implementation). Leader’s personality is often idolize but to be effective he/she should have both – power and psychological motive.

Stages of technical progress and the use of technical means in our age

The paper focused on the technical development issues and emphasized the actual use of technical means in contemporary times, including – among others – tools and devices in the era of automation and electronics, and also robotics in the future. In historical time, the following groups of technical means should be mentioned in turn: 1) instruments and tools, as well as devices made from natural elements, especially of stone and wood; 2) instruments, tools and devices made mostly of metal, as well as equipment made – depending on needs – from different materials, including the ones made of glass; 1) technical means which boasted distinguished features of mechanisms (e. g. drawbridges) or even automatic machines (e. g. clocks and watches); 4) emergence of technical and technological conditions for the production of machines and construction of factories in the pre-industrial manufacture when the division of production deepened, broadened and fell into activities equivalent to technical and technological operations which initiated technical revolution; 5) implementation of assembly lines in big H. Ford car manufacturing plants which were the germs of production automatic machines initiating the scientific and technical revolution; 6) electronic devices, especially TV-sets and computers; 7) remote controlling of space objects and production processes; 8) the use of the internet for acquiring information and for communication; 9) the use of robots combining the latest technique and electronics, and working thanks to perfectly used software, which are a manifestation of great technical and technological progress, and have great perspectives for the future. Taking into account the above, the author distinguished nine stages of technical development mainly:18 Benedykt Banach 1) the stage of (conventionally speaking) primitive technique; 2) the stage of mainly stone and wood tools; 3) the stage of metal tools made in smelting processes; 4) the stage of mechanization due to the extensive use of machines; 5) the stage of automation as a result of extensive use of automatic machines; 6) the stage of electronics, including mainly the common use of a higher and higher generation of computers; 7) the stage of production remote controlled technique; 8) the stage of common internet domination; 9) and the future stage of robots, including mainly production robots.

Petrification of communist country’s ideology on the example of ideological and political debates in People’s Poland in the eightees in XX century

In this article it is mentioned the problem of activities that were done by Polish United Workers’ Party in order to maintain and strengthen a socialistic country. Those activities were to protect ideological and doctrinal status. It is the historical point of view of this matter. You can enumerate such basic problems in the article as: crises of People’s Republic of Poland and their doctrinal explanations, the problem of creation ideologies of marcism, leninism and socialism. The article is only the first part to the wider description. It contains an important context because in the conclusions or other historical descriptions which show reality of the collapse of People’s Republic of Poland, the problems are not mentioned. It is also essential that the article is based on the rarely used original material.

Young generation in Podkarpacie in the years 2007–2011

In the article results of exploratory researches carried out in the years 2007–2010 among seniors. Due to the comparison of some surveys an accurate image of young generation. The analysis show that seniors tend to get a job, set up a family, gain the esteem, and high level of life. Mentioned aspirations are still under researches. The fall of education and religiousness was only recorded. Nevertheless educational aspirations among examined group are high and most youth tend to gain high er education.

Błażej Zarzycki, a Cracow burgher and a „friendly agreement” in the dispute over his wealth

Błażej Zarzecki was one of the most influential Cracow bakers of the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. He married twice, his first wife was Dorota and the second Elżbieta, and he had several children with both. Besides being a baker he was also a brewer and leaseholder of the “Morawieckiego” brewery. He went through all the steps of the clerical career in the guild. He was appointed a councillor, an assessor, a treasurer, a podstarszy and on 25th February 1710 he achieved the most respected position of prymas.

At his death Zarzecki left a will, however, his second wife desisted from executing its provisions fearing legal action by the children from Błażej’s first marriage. Once the inventory of Zarzecki’s property was complete, the quarrel ended with the so-called “friendly agreement”, i.e. an act of reconciliation aiming at ending the dispute.

The base material of folk schools in Tarnów province in the II Polish Republic

The base material of folk schools in Galicia did not secure needs of this type of education. The fact that the obligation to establish and maintain schools fell on the municipality and the local people effectively inhibited the development of education and meant that about 50% of children did not attend school and became illiterate.

The situation of the folk housing schools in the district of Tarnow was similarly difficult as in other areas of Galicia. It was deteriorated by actions of World War I and the devastating behavior of both Russian and Austrian invading troops. School buildings were converted into barracks, warehouses, hospitals, losing its an original purpose. School buildings were old, often built back in the 80s of the nineteenth century. They were mostly small and the only chamber was dark and stuffy. Therefore, they did not meet the technical and sanitary requirements and were also often inadequate to the needs of the learning process. Sometimes the space for the purpose of teaching was rented from private individuals. Lack of funds meant it was cheap living room, but with enough space to accommodate a large group of students. Considerations of hygiene and sanitation such as the arrangement of windows, the brightness of classrooms, lack of moisture, air access were secondary issues. Classrooms’ equipment was mostly poor and accidental. At least three main furniture, a table for the teacher, different benches for students and a blackboard were constantly repeated. In the absence of the board, its function served a smooth wall or dense plane of raw boards. Teaching aids were rarity. They were made of wood, rarely of paper and cardboard. Thus one of the most important and difficult problem of general education after independence, both at the country and Tarnow became the issue of schools construction and equipping them with equipment and teaching aids. The size of school buildings was largely dependent on the number of children subjected to compulsory schooling and attended to schools. In many cases, these factors were not taken into account. The school buildings area was often accidental, dependent on the funds from the municipality and local community awareness about the need for school. The degree of this consciousness in many cases is still low despite the generous activity of teachers. Despite the generally better condition of housing in the county, it should be stressed that, as in the whole country and here the issue of the school building has not been resolved completely. Visible progress has been achieved through the efforts of educational authorities, support of local governments, more conscious parents and both teachers’ efforts and hard work, especially school administrators, who often even in a hopeless situation were able to find a solution of the problem.

Problem of legal activities of the National Bank of Agriculture in General Government on the basis of sale transaction of the forest area Laski-Borków from Wilanów’s property in 1940

In this press article we are trying to estimate an activity of bank institution in General Government which used pre-war apparatus of The National Bank of Agriculture. That bank was one of the largest bank that achieved aims showed to it by the government of Polish Republic II which was to service activity of agricultural reform in the mid-war period. As it is known, the German occupant authorities used assets of the same bank for other various aims. During World War II the bank was working on the basis of out of border laws in Great Britain.

There has not been any straight estimation of legality of The National Bank of Agriculture in General Government. The political reasons made impossible to take back the major part of its assets in the post-war period. Finally, the National Bank of Economy took control of the rest part of The National Bank of Agriculture’s property which was not liquidated. In order to analyze our question we have used as an example the transaction which was possible using an apparatus of The National Bank of Agriculture in 1940. The transaction was between the bank and earl Adam Branicki from Wilanow – one of the most powerful pre-war debter of the bank ( according to the amount of debt). The transaction included selling of the forest area Laski – Borki which was a part of earl Adam Branicki’s terrestrial estate to The National Bank of Agriculture in General Government and summing up sale price (2 000 000 polish zlotych) with the part of Braniecki’s debt. I have chosen the transaction to analyze not only because of its large value ( taking into account relations of The National Bank of Agriculture which was in charge of breaking up minor farmers’ properties) but also its relatively good documentary and last but not least, the variety of aspects appearing on the background of this one transaction.

Cultural heritage and environmental values as the factor of tourism development in rural communes of Cracow county: Michalowice and Zielonki

The article concerns the state and determinants of tourism and recreation services development in two communes located in Cracow Count: Michalowice and Zielonki. Among factors of tourism development issues connected with cultural heritage and environmental values were discussed in detail. The author presented the most important factors of tourism and recreation development in these regions, and characterized the tourism infrastructure including number of and forms of accommodation sites, and sport-recreation objects, too. Moreover, the most important tourism values located in two communities were presented.  In the empirical part of the article results of researches carried out in both communities in the form of direct interviews with officials in Count Offices. In the community of Michalowice the respondent was the vice voyt. In County Office in Zielonki the respondent was the official of this office responsible for community promotion. The researches concerned the role of local authorities in tourism-recreational services development and determination the most important factors of tourism development.

The lowermost servant, yes-man, and prisoner of yours – cliental supplicatory letters of the Saxon period

Development of informal cliental bonds which resulted in the opportunity to gain importance in public domain, were one but not the only goal of this type of social relationship. Material or more often prestige support opened doors to eminent family affinities, paved the way to political and military carriers, won friends and allies, and in this way, guaranteed stability in difficult Saxon times. Political-military and economic situation, presence of enemies, war destruction, natural disasters of those days influenced the durability of such agreements. The person of the protector, his protective means (affinities, finances, offices held, closeness with the court) as well as temperamental traits (accessibility, joviality, openness) proved to be important. A separate issue was cultural patronage in the form of protection over a narrow artistic milieu of the Republic of Poland (architects, painters, musicians, printers, newspaper editors), which was a testimony to mental changes of the age. Or the long-time developed religious patronage over religious institutions and their representatives (monastic congregations and brotherhoods, churches, chapels). The reflection of the stiffening structure of the informal social bonds can be found in all written sources. The most interesting example of the patron – client relationship and the resulting supplicatory attitude are epistolary sources, which in a superb though slightly exaggerated way show the mentality of both sides. Those letters were a ritual cultivated throughout generations, where under complex ceremoniousness and verbiage the actual goals and hopes of both sides appeared. The visible division between the supplicant (client) and the favour-lavishing addressee (patron) outlined in the letters was preserved irrespectively of the status and social position of the correspondents.

The environmental protection in the socio-economic development

Perspective of socio-economic development depends on many factors, mainly the the respective structural and systemic changes, and the proper use of resources. System and structural solutions accompanied by the necessary investment and funds along with the institutional support will have an overwhelming influence on this development. This paper presents the problems of environmental protection and the most important economic instruments for the environmental protection in socio-economic development. In this paper first discusses the theoretical environmental protection, then the issue of instruments in this field. The work ends with a brief conclusion.

Relationships between the Little Poland Peasant Party and the Home Army (AK)

Despite huge repressive measures of both 3rd Reich and USSR in 1939, the activists initiated reconstruction of SL (Peasant Party) local networks. The Little Poland branch of SL enjoyed the strongest position among regional structures of SL. SL granted peasants the right to play a domineering role within the state. During the war however, the fight to liberate the country was the main task. When ZWZ (Armed Fight Union) was established, the Little Poland branch of SL recognized it and started close cooperation. Peasant Party members of Cracow believed, that both military and political affairs should be controlled by one headquarters. The weaker competitor within the peasant movement, Peasant Liberty Organisation „Racławice”, controlled by the pre-war “Sanacja” regime followers, established Polish Armed Organization. Its structures, which were strong in Little Poland, cooperated loyally with ZWZ. Relationships between SL and ZWZ-AK in the given area can be divided into three periods, its boundaries being great arrests of the Area headquarters of ZWZ in April 1941 and the beginning of unification of the SL armed branch – Peasants’ Battalions and AK.

In the 1939–1945 it was very difficult to negotiate the then contradictory military and political reasons. National army, in which political views should give way to military reasons was the AK headquarter’s aim. Pre-war officers were excellent at organizing the army. These were generally “Sanacja” supporters. SL were very reluctant towards „Sanacja”. Their aim was to carry out their ideas and reinforce influence within the army and the society. Due to the resistance conditions, invader’s terror, strength of pre-war political divisions and the rolling German–Soviet front together with its consequences, it was difficult to find a compromise.

Agrarian structure and agricultural land market in Germany – the organizational aspects and last and present development trends

In the article the changes of agrarian structure were w analized and the law regulations connected with the issues with the turnover of agricultural grounds in Germany. The specific impact was focused on the discussion of farms’ structure, estimation of grounds’ lease significance, and the indication of main tendencies on the agricultural areas in Germany. The historical characteristic of individual instrument and law institutions.

The scheme of antijude persecutions from antique till XX centaury

The article is an attempt of outlining the anti-Jewish persecutions from ancien times to the twentieth century. Negative attitudes towards Jews were caused by various motives – from religious, economical to racial ones. When considering anti-Semitic incidents which took place in the Third Reich, one can find a great similarity with activities against the Jews in the past – anti-Jewish legislation, a yellow Star of David badge bearing, deprivation of property, acts directed against the Jewish culture and heritage, social exclusion and isolation in ghettos. The specificity of Nazi Policy towards Jews made anti-Jewish acts not only a goal in itself but this was just the first step towards total extermination of the Jewish population. On the one hand, Holocaust encompasses xenophobic persecution activities, which through the centuries were solidified in European awareness as recurrent, common, occurring collective repulsion against “strangers”; on the other hand one can find here an element of a nihilistic innovation in murder and radicalism of “the final solution of the question” – this never happened in previous centuries, even in extreme Anti-Semitism or any other racialist or chauvinistic ideas.

The athenian democracy and the modern democracy

The starting point for discussion in this article was the idea of Robert Dahl, who said that “the Greek democracy, political institutions, although at that time a very innovative, have been ignored or even rejected during the development of modern representative democracy.” The author of this article refers to the history of Athenian democracy and tries to search the answer to Dahl’s thesis. Author of the summary points out that Dahl’s thesis is built on the model of representative democracy polyarchy, while the modern model of deliberative democracy to a large extent refers to the solutions of the Athenian democracy. So finally, author rejects the Dahl`s idea as too hasty and not thought out in the context of the considerations of contemporary deliberative democracy.

The reasons of deaths in the light of certificate in Opole Lubelskie parish at the end of XVIII centaury

The article represents the causes of deaths contained in the metric of the Opole Lubelskie parish at the end of the 18th century. The names of diseases and their symptoms are divided in 10 groups: dermatological, throat diseases, connected with childbirth, the diseases of the blond circulation, nervous, respiratory and digestive systems, infectious diseases and the single cases of other diseases. The sudden cases of death, deaths because of old age, deaths because of weakness and deaths in accidensts are in the the separate group. Many diseases resulted from the lack of immunity of undernourished organisms. Diseases were also caused by the the low level of hygiene and the lack of the medical help. People rarely died of chronic diseases. Data from metric represent the ministers knowledge about the cause of death. They are usually the only source of information about the deadly diseases poor classes of the contemporary society.

The present study was unable to definitively clarify whether the production of sheep milk or lamb meat is profitable or not. But, as is the case for other types of agricultural activities, the study showed that profitability in these branches depends primarily on the economic framework (e.g. price of milk, costs), production conditions and production levels. Therefore, a variation in the results should not seem surprising. Importantly, above-average milk yields and numbers of reared lambs were both proven to be crucial factors for achieving a satisfying economic performance. For example, the farm type LM-2.3 (2.3 born lambs per ewe per year, 20% sold breeding lambs) obtained an agricultural income of more than 11,700 Euros. Conversely, with only 2 born lambs per ewe per year and 10% sold breeding lambs the agricultural income of the same farm decreased by almost 5,300 Euros. In addition, a similar pattern emerged for milk sheep farming based on the calculations performed for the study. Thus, the results indicate that even small differences in gross margins have a huge effect on agricultural income within these farming branches. Despite the variation in results, several general tendencies can be unequivocally derived from the calculations. Above all, the selected farm activity (meat or milk) determines the economic potential. Milk sheep farming exhibits a high productivity of land far exceeding that of farms which focus on lamb meat production. Hence, sheep milk production can be recommended to farmers who operate their farms full time, have a relative shortage of land and have enough labour resources. Entering into the production of sheep milk could also be an interesting option for cow milk producers confronted with larger investments over the next few years. On the other hand, the production of sheep milk is very labour intensive and the economic figures per labour unit do not always yield a better performance than other agricultural activities. Lamb meat production is quite different to sheep milk production: The demand for labour is much lower, but so is productivity per ha grassland. Generally speaking, this farm activity is less intensive and could represent an interesting alternative for part-time farms. The effects of further processing the raw products and conducting direct marketing activities were not analysed separately. However, according to the interviewed farmers, direct marketing could enormously increase the profitability of these farms, including profitability per labour unit. In this case, many considerations would need to be taken into account (e.g. additional labour and investment, as well as new market opportunities). The results of the study are based on a number of assumptions and hence only general conclusions can be drawn, to mean conclusions related to individual farms would necessitate knowing and applying the actual farm-specific data. In general, however, lower investment costs for buildings or due to already depreciated but still used assets would certainly contribute to a more positive farm income. Furthermore, alternative marketing strategies (e.g. direct marketing), farm management (e.g. organic farming) or methods of production (e.g. feeding strategies like the use of feed concentrate) could all have a significant impact on agricultural income. Importantly, the productivity of both activities – sheep milk production and lamb meat production – is strongly influenced by the gross margin per ewe. Even minor deviations in this key figure can result in huge differences in farm income. Thus, continuous monitoring and improvement of the farm-specific production situation is indispensable for the future success of sheep farming.

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