Going to war with COVID-19: Securitizing the pandemic in France, Israel and Peru

This article focuses on the securitization of the response to COVID-19 in France, Israel, and Peru. This study explores the manner in which securitization of the COVID-19 pandemic was carried out in these three countries. The securitization of the threat was manifested in the type of rhetoric used, the use of emergency legislation (and new ‘normalised’ legislation based on the former) and other types of crisis laws, the employment of the military and other security agencies, and popular support for approaching the crisis through a securitization lens. This work hypothesizes that securitization occurred because, among other things, the existing infrastructure (laws, policies, and institutions) in these countries facilitated the securitization process, all three countries have a history of securitizing major national crises, and the securitization process was further buttressed by popular acceptance of the securitization of the response to COVID.

REFERENCES:

• Adalah: The Legal Center for Arab Minority Rights in Israel. (n.d.). Israeli military recruiting Shin Bet agents to gather intelligence on Arab communities in ‘securitized’ effort to halt COVID-19. Retrieved from https://www.adalah.org/en/content/view/10144.
• Adam, I. (2020, September 15). In Latin America due to COVID-19 the permanent alteration of civil-military relations is being put at risk. WOLA. Retrieved from https://www.wola.org/analysis/ latin-america-covid-19-civil-military-relations-policing/.
• Alvarado, O.S. (2021). Transformation of Peruvian airpower during the COVID-19 pandemic: Humanitarian aid under the Tayta plan. Journal of the Americas, 1, 187-195
• Alvarez-Risco, A. et al. (2020). The Peru approach against the COVID-19 infodemic: Insights and strategies. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 103(2), 583-586. DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-0536.
• Amit, M., Kimhi, H., Bader, T., Chen, J., Glassberg, E., Benov, A. (2020). Mass-surveillance technologies to fight coronavirus spread: The case of Israel. Nature Medicine, 26(8), 1168.
• Amnesty International. (2020, March). Peru: State must immediately repeal law that sends a wrong message of impunity for possible police abuses amidst the COVID-19 emergency. Retrieved from https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/03/peru-debe-derogar-ley-impunidad-abusos-policiales-emergencia-covid19/.
• Amnesty International. (2020, November 13). Peru: Amnesty International documents excessive use of force by National Police. Retrieved from https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2020/11/peru-amnistia-documenta-usoexcesivo-de-la-fuerza-por-policia/.
• Amnesty International. (n.d.). Peru. Retrieved from https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/americas/ south-america/peru/report-peru/.
• (2020, July 11). Coronavirus: Conoce qué es la Operación Tayta a quiénes y en qué regiones atiende. Retrieved from https://andina.pe/agencia/noticia-coronavirus-conoce-es-operaciontayta-a-quienes-y-que-regiones-atiende-805297.aspx.
• (2020, September 16). Covid-19: Brigadas de las FF.AA. se integrarán esta semana al proceso de vacunación. Retrieved from https://andina.pe/agencia/noticia-covid19-brigadas-las-ffaa-se-integraran-esta-semana-al-proceso-vacunacion861978.aspx.
• (2021, May 12). Peru: Tayta Operation reaches 18 districts to assist most vulnerable. Retrieved from https://andina.pe/agencia/seccion-economia-2.aspx/www.bibliotecanacional.gov.co/goo.gl/noticia-peru-tayta-operation-reaches-18-districts-to-assist-most-vulnerable-844797.aspx.
• Balzacq, T. (2011). A theory of securitization: Origins, core assumptions, and variants. In T. Balzacq (ed.). Securitization theory: How security problems emerge and dissolve (p. 3). Routledge.
• Balzacq, T. (2011). Enquiries into methods: A new framework for securitization analysis. In T. Balzacq (ed.). Securitization theory: How security problems emerge and dissolve (p. 34). Routledge.
• Barroux, R. (2020, April 7). Chez les Françaises et les Français, le confinement fait globalement consensus. Le Monde. Retrieved from https://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2020/04/07/au-sein-de-lapopulation-francaise-le-confinement-fait-consensus_6035807_3244.html.
• Belin, C., Block, A., Nicolai, J. (2020). France at war against the coronavirus: Politics under anesthesia? Brookings. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/03/31/france-at-war-against-the-coronavirus-politicsunder-anesthesia/.
• Buzan, B., Hansen, L. (2009). The evolution of international security studies. Cambridge University Press.
• Buzan, B., Waever, O., de Wilde, J. (1998). Security: A new framework for analysis. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
• Caceres Cabana, Y.D., Malone, A., Zeballos Zeballos, E., Huamani Huaranca, N.O., Tintaa, M.T., Gonzales Beltrán, S.A., Andia Arosquipa, A., Pinedo, D. (2021). Pandemic response in rural Peru: Multi-scale institutional analysis of the COVID-19 crisis. Applied Geography, 134, 102519, 1–9.
• (2021). The development of scientific training in Peru. Centro De Altos Estudios Internacionales. Retrieved from http://142.93.18.15:8080/jspui/bitstream/123456789/727/1/libro%20final%20 tomo%201.pdf#page175.
• Cahane, A. (2021, December 16). The collapsed bridge loan: Israel’s Shin Bet location tracking of Omicron carriers. Lawfare. Retrieved from https://lawfareblog.com/collapsed-bridge-loan-israels-shin-bet-location-tracking-omicron-carriers.
• Carrillo, V.P. (2021). Participación de las fuerzas armadas del Perú en la emergencia sanitaria nacional por la COVID-19. Revista de Ciencia e Investigación en Defensa-CAEN, 6–19.
• Caspit, B. (2020, April 24). Israel weighs strategic implications of coronavirus crisis. Al-Monitor. Retrieved from https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2020/04/israel-corona-middle-east-conflict-palestine-security.html.
• Chandler, D. (2020). The coronavirus: Biopolitics and the rise of “anthropocene authoritarianism.” Russia in Global Affairs, 18(2), 26–32.
• (2020, March 28). Coronavirus en Perú: Eximen a militares y policías de responsabilidad penal por reprimir en cuarentena. Retrieved from https://www.clarin.com/mundo/coronavirus-peru-eximen-militares-policias-responsabilidad-penal-reprimir-cuarentena_0_FXvgjMkrA.html.
• Cohen, S. (2020). The IDF’s involvement in the corona crisis: Is it a ‘slippery slope?’ In M. Elran, A. Cohen, K. Padan, I.S. Gitlman (eds.). Civil-military relations in Israel in the shadow of corona: Conclusions from the first wave (pp. 12–26). Institute for National Security Studies.
• Collyns, D. (2020, May 20). Peru’s coronavirus response was ‘right on time’ – so why isn’t it working? The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www. theguardian.com/global-development/2020/may/20/peru-coronavirus-lockdown-new-cases.
• Delerue, F., Jolly, E., Michelis, L., Muxel, A., Opillard, F., Palle, A. (2020). COVID-19 and the mobilization of the armed forces in Europe and in the United States (IRSEM Notes, 107, p. 18).
• Diamint, R. (2020). Violencia Estado y Sociedad en América Latina. Panorama y desafíos de la violencia contra las mujeres en tres países de América Latina. Retrieved from https://library.fes.de/pdffiles/bueros/la-seguridad/16102.pdf.
• (2020, April 16). Incluyen a las Fuerzas Armadas del Perú como parte del Comando de Operaciones COVID-19. Diariogestion. Retrieved from https://gestion.pe/.
• Eiland, G. (2020, March 18). Israel is in all-out war with the coronavirus. Ynet News. Retrieved from https://www.ynetnews.com/article/HkMc4KkIU.
• El Peruano. (2020, November 19). Fuerzas armadas apoyarán la lucha contra el COVID-19 y garantizarán elecciones libres. El Peruano.
• Elbe, S. (2006). Should HIV/AIDS be securitized? The ethical dilemmas of linking HIV/AIDS and security. International Studies Quarterly, 50, 119-144.
• Ellis, R.E. (2020). Retos de las Fuerzas Armadas de Latinoamérica para responder a la pandemia del COVID-19. Revista Fuerza Aérea-EUA, 49-77.
• Freedom House. (2021). Peru. Retrieved from https://freedomhouse.org/country/peru/freedom-world/2021.
• Freedom House. (2022). Peru. Retrieved from https://freedomhouse.org/country/peru/freedom-world /2022.
• Freer et al. (2020). Extra-regional threats to security. Catholic University of Peru.
• Garcia, P.J., Alarcón, A., Bayer, A., Buss, P., Guerra, G., Ribeiro, H., Atun, R. (2020). COVID-19 response in Latin America. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 103(5), 1765-1772. DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-0765.
• Gedan, B.N. (2021). Coronavirus cavalry: Amid COVID-19 chaos Latin America’s armed forces redeploy at home. Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, 22(1), 13-21.
• Gestión Perú. (2020). Coronavirus Perú: Suman más de 33 mil los detenidos desde que inició la cuarentena obligatoria. Retrieved from https://gestion.pe/peru/coronavirus-peru-suman-mas-de-33-mil-los-detenidos-desde-que-inicio-la-cuarentena-obligatoria-cuarentena-estado-de-emergencia-covid-19-nndc-noticia/.
• Gheciu, A., Wohlforth, W.C. (eds.). (2018). The Oxford handbook of international security. Oxford University Press.
• Government of Peru. (2020, January 31). Más de 55000 miembros de las Fuerzas Armadas apoyarán a la PNP en supervisión de medidas. Peru. Retrieved from https://gestion.pe/.
• Government of Peru. (2020, June 1). Gobierno inicia Operación TAYTA para proteger a la población vulnerable ante COVID-19 en zonas de riesgo. Retrieved from https://www.gob.pe/institucion/ mindef/noticias/168091-gobierno-inicia-operacion-tayta-para-proteger-a-la-poblacion-vulnerable-ante-covid-19-en-zonas-de-riesgo.
• Government of Peru. (2020, March 19). Parte de la estrategia para reducir la propagación del COVID-19 es inmovilizar al máximo a la ciudadanía. Retrieved from https://www.gob.pe/institucion/ mindef/noticias/109574-parte-de-la-estrategia-para-reducir-la-propagacion-del-covid-19-es-inmovilizar-al-maximo-a-la-ciudadania.
• Government of Peru. (2020, November 19). Distritos de Cusco y Ayacucho recibieron 21 mil atenciones médicas en acción del Comando Conjunto. Government of Peru Press Communique. Retrieved from https://www.gob.pe/institucion/ccffaa/ noticias/513960-distritos-de-cusco-y-ayacucho-recibieron-21-mil-atenciones-medicas-en-accion-del-comando-conjunto.
• Government of Peru. (2021). Constitución política del Perú. Retrieved from https://www.gob. pe/institucion/presidencia/informes-publicaciones/196158-constitucion-politica-del-peru.
• Government of Peru. (2021, June 17). Ministra de Defensa destaca el trabajo articulado del Plan Sipán para superar la pandemia. Retrieved from https://www.gob.pe/institucion/mindef/ noticias/500975-ministra-de-defensa-destaca-el-trabajo-articulado-del-plan-sipan-para-superar-la-pandemia.
• Government of Peru. (2021, September 6). Operación Tayta fue reconocida como Buena Práctica en Gestión Pública. Retrieved from https://www. gob.pe/institucion/mindef/noticias/520674-operacion-tayta-fue-reconocida-como-buena-practica-en-gestion-publica.
• Haynes, J. (2019). From Huntington to Trump: Thirty years of clash of civilizations (p. 95). Lexington Books.
• Hoffman, A. (2020). The securitization of the coronavirus conflict in the Middle East. Project on Middle East Political Science. Elliot School of International Affairs. Retrieved from https://pomeps.org/the-securitization-of-the-coronavirus-crisis-in-the-middle-east.
• i24 News. (2020, March 14). Israel: Unveiling broad coronavirus measures, Netanyahu says all leisure activities to be halted. i24 News. Retrieved from https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/israel/1584216067-coronavirus-all-leisure-activities-to-be-halted-in-israel-netanyahu-says-unveiling-broad-measures.
• Irons, R. (n.d.). Colonial Wound, (Re)Infected: Pandemic in the Andes. Retrieved from http://somatosphere.net/forumpost/colonial-covid19-pandemic-andes/.
• Ish-Shalom, T. (2020, April 1). Bennet: “We are in the first coronavirus war – Note everything will be organised.” Channel 13 News. Retrieved from https://13tv.co.il/item/news/domestic/health/ bennet-corona-1039905/.
• Israel Democracy Institute. (2020, November 20). Special survey: Large majority think IDF should manage coronavirus crisis. Retrieved from https://en.idi.org.il/articles/32922.
• Kahana, E. (2021). Intelligence against COVID-19: Israeli case study. International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence, 34(2), 259-275.
• (2020). Law authorizing the ISA to support the national effort to decrease the spread of the new coronavirus, Section B (in Hebrew).
• La Republica. (2020, April 10). Gobierno anula restricción por género: Solo podrá salir una persona por núcleo familiar. Retrieved from https://larepublica.pe/sociedad/2020/04/10/gobierno-anula-restriccion-por-genero-solo-podra-salir-una-persona-por-nucleo-familiar/.
• Lainez, R.H., Salcedo, R.M., Madariaga, M.G. (2021). COVID-19 infection in the developing world: The Peruvian perspective. Transactions of The Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 115(9), 941- 943. DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/trab074.
• Latinobarómetro. (2020). Peru Study (#LAT2020v1_0).
• Leonard, S., Kaunert, C. (2011). Reconceptualizing the audience in securitization theory. In T. Balzacq (ed.). Securitization theory: How security problems emerge and dissolve (pp. 57-76). Routledge.
• Levy, Y. (2021). The people’s army ‘enemizing’ the people: The COVID-19 case of Israel. European Journal of International Security, 7(1). Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ european-journal-of-international-security/article/peoples-army-enemising-the-people-the-covid19-case-of-israel/BEFD4BBB89FA9E71878FC513B4ACDBE4.
• López Lozano, R.B. (2021). COVID-19 Pandemic in Peru: Reflections on Its Gravity and the Nation’s Reaction. GNOSI: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Human Theory and Praxis, 4(3). June -December, 148-163.
• Lovatón, D. (2020, April 26). Quarantine state of emergency, state of enforcement, and the pandemic in Peru. Verfassungsblog. Retrieved from https://verfassungsblog.de/quarantine-state-ofemergency-state-of-enforcement-and-the-pandemic-in-peru/.
• Lovatón, D. (2021, April 12). The rule of law in Peru: Beset by corruption and the pandemic. Verfassungsblog. Retrieved from https://verfassungsblog. de/the-rule-of-law-in-peru-beset-by-corruptionand-the-pandemic/.
• Lye, H. (2020, November 26). Coronavirus company news summary – 10,000 Peruvian Armed Forces members receive immunisation training. Army Technology. Retrieved from https://www. army-technology.com/uncategorised/coronavirus-company-news-summary-10000-peruvian-armed-forces-members-receive-immunisation-training/.
• Marchessini, A. (2020, April 17). Fuerzas Armadas del Perú contra el Covid-19: Balance de Operaciones (con galería fotográfica). Defensa.com. Retrieved from https://www.defensa.com/peru/fuerzas-armadas-peru-contra-covid-19-balance-operaciones-galeria.
• Marciano, A., Yadlin, A. (2022). Media coverage of COVID-19 – State surveillance in Israel: The securitization and militarization of a civil-medical crisis. Media, Culture & Society, 44(3), 448.
• Matei, F.C., et al. (eds.). (2021). Routledge Handbook of Civil-Military Relations (2nd ed.). Routledge.
• McDonald, M. (2008). Securitization and the construction of security. European Journal of International Relations, 14(4), 563-587.
• Minerva Center for the Rule of Law under Extreme Conditions. (2016). Law and emergencies: A comparative overview. University of Haifa.
• Nordquist, R. (2019, May). Felicity conditions: Definition and examples. ThoughtCo. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/felicity-conditions-speech-1690855.
• Notimérica. (2020, March 29). Coronavirus.-Perú aprueba una ley que exime de responsabilidad penal a militares y policías. Retrieved from https:// notimerica.com/politica/noticia-coronavirus-peru-aprueba-ley-exime-responsabilidad-penal-militares-policias-20200329133417.html.
• Oeffinger, J., Florina, C.M. (2021). Peru: When presidents go praetorian. In F.C. Matei et al. (eds.). Routledge handbook of civil-military relations (2nd ed., p. 245). Routledge.
• Opillard, F., Palle, A., Michelis, L. (2020). Discourse and strategic use of the military in France and Europe in the COVID-19 crisis. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 111(3), 243.
• Palle, A., Carayon, L., Delerue, F., Opillard, F., Chidiac, C. (2022). Policy making and liberty restrictions in the COVID-19 crisis: The case of France. In N. Morag (ed.). Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic: International laws, policies, and civil liberties (pp. 165-172). Wiley and Sons.
• Paquier, P., Luft, A., Gillard, J., Boutonnet, M., Vallet, C., Pontier, J.-M., Duron-Martinaud, A., Dia, A., Puyeo, L., Debrus, F., Prunet, B., Beaume, S., de Saint Maurice, G., Meaudre, E., Ficko, C., Merens, A., Raharisson, G., Conte, B., Dorandeu, F., Canini, F., Michel, R., Ausset, S., Escarment, J. (2021). How do we fight COVID-19? Military medical actions in the war against the COVID-19 pandemic in France. B Military Health, 167(4), 269-273.
• Passos, A.M. (2021, February 6). La militarización en América Latina en tiempos de Covid-19. The Conversation. Retrieved from https://theconversation. com/la-militarizacion-en-america-latina-en-tiempos-de-covid-19-154781.
• Pastrana, E. et al. (2020). “EXTRA-REGIONAL THREATS TO SECURITY Policy Network on Security Between Peru and its neighbors,” Conference Paper. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate. net/profile/Diego-Vera-7/publication/349252395_ EXTRA-REGIONAL_THREATS_TO_SECURITY_Policy_Network_on_Security_Between_Peru_and_its_ neigh-bors/links/6026aa9da6fdcc37a8217dcc/ EXTRA-REGIO-NAL-THREATS-TO-SECURITY-Policy-Network-on-Security-Between-Peru-and-itsneigh-bors.pdf.
• Peoples, C., Vaughan-Williams, N. (2021). Critical security studies: An introduction (3rd ed., p. 495). Routledge.
• Perez-Brumer, A., Silva-Santisteban, A. (2020). COVID-19 Policies can Perpetuate Violence Against Transgender Communities: Insights from Peru. AIDS Behav 24. DOI: 10.1007/s10461-020- 02889-z.
• Peri, Y. (2020). Why was the IDF mobilised to fight the coronavirus? A retrospective look at the role expansion of the military in Israel. In M. Elran, A. Cohen, C. Padan, I. Shafran Gittleman (eds.). Civil-military relations in Israel in the shadow of Corona: Insights from the first wave [in Hebrew] (pp. 12– –26). The Israeli Democracy Institute and The Institute for National Security Studies. Retrieved from https://www.idi.org.il/media/14981/socio-military-relations-in-israel-in-the-shadow-ofthe-corona.pdf.
• Perroud, T., Guernaoui, E. (2020, April 21). France’s health crisis is a democracy crisis, too. The Regulatory Review. Retrieved from https://www.theregreview.org/2020/04/21/perroud-guernaoui-frances-health-crisis-democracy-crisis/.
• Peruvian Congress. Ley Que Deroga Articulos de la Ley 31012, Ley de Protecttion Political. Retrieved from https://www.leyes.congreso.gob.pe/Documentos/2016_2021/Proyectos_de_Ley_y_de_Resoluciones_Legislativas/PL04986_20200402.pdf.
• Peruvian Government. Return to my country during the state of emergency in Peru. Retrieved from https://www.gob.pe/en/8794-return-to-my-country-during-the-state-of-emergency-in-peru.
• Pion-Berlin, D., Acácio, I. (2020). The return of the Latin American military? Journal of Democracy, 31(4), 151–165. DOI: 10.1353/jod.2020.0062.
• Portella, D.C.A. (2021). Acciones militares con participación del ejército peruano en la lucha contra el coronavirus y su influencia en la aceptación de la sociedad civil (Thesis).
• Republic of France. (2013). French white paper: Defense and national security (p. 47). French Republic.
• Reyes Colquicocha, O.S. et al. (2021). Human rights in Peru, a study from higher education during the pandemic by COVID. CAEIN, 170-190.
• Ritchie, H., Mathieu, E., Rodés-Guirao, L., Appel, C., Giattino, C., Ortiz-Ospina, E., Hasell, J., Macdonald, B., Beltekian, D., Roser, M. (2020). Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19). Our World in Data. Retrieved from https://ourworldindata.org/coronavirus.
• Schmitt, C. (1985/2004). Political theology: Four chapters on the concept of sovereignty (G. Schwab, Trans.). University of Chicago Press.
• Schmitt, C. (1996/2007). The concept of the political (G. Schwab, Trans.). University of Chicago Press.
• Silver, L., Connaughton, A. (2022, August 11). Partisanship colors views of COVID-19 handling across advanced economies. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from https://www.pewresearch.org/ global/2022/08/11/partisanship-colors-views-ofcovid-19-handling-across-advanced-economies/.
• Sjostedt, R. (2020). Assessing securitization theory: Theoretical discussions and empirical developments. In M.J. Butler (ed.). Securitization revisited: Contemporary applications and insights (pp. 28-46). Routledge.
• Stritzel, H., Chang, S. (2015). Securitization and counter-securitization in Afghanistan. Security Dialogue, 46(6), 550.
• Sueyoshi, A. (2021). COVID-19 in Peru: Government policies and an assessment of their outcome. Center for the Multicultural Public Sphere, 13, 60-71. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle. net/10241/00012665.
• (2021, July 30). Fuerzas Armadas ofrecen desfile por el bicentenario a presidente del Perú. Retrieved from https://www.swissinfo.ch/spa/ per%C3%BA-gobierno_fuerzas-armadas-ofrecen-desfile-por-el-bicentenario-a-presidente-del-per%C3%BA/46831088.
• Taj, M., Kurmanaev, A. (2020, June 12). Virus exposes weak links in Peruʼs success story. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/.
• Toi Staff. (2020, April 4). Bennett demands his defense ministry take over virus battle from health ministry. The Times of Israel. Retrieved from https:// timesofisrael.com/bennett-demands-his-office-take-charge-of-virus-battle-from-health-ministry/.
• Vila Benites, G., Anthony, B. (2020). Political settlements and the governance of COVID-19: Mining risk and territorial control in Peru. Journal of Latin American Geography, 19(3), 215–223. DOI: 10.1353/lag.2020.0081.
• Vuori, J. (2017). Constructivism and securitization studies. In M.D. Cavelty, T. Balzacq (eds.). Routledge handbook of security studies (2nd ed., pp. 75–76). Routledge.
• Yang, H. (2022). We are at war: Securitization, legitimation and COVID-19 pandemic politics in France. Contemporary Politics, 28(3), 345–359. Retrieved from https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/fu ll/10.1080/13569775.2022.2118426.
• Youde, J. (2008). Who’s afraid of a chicken? Securitization and the avian flu. Democracy and Security, 4, 159–162.
• Zegarra, G. (2020, March 30). El uso de la fuerza en los tiempos del COVID-19. CooperAcción. Retrieved from https://cooperaccion.org.pe/el-usode-la-fuerza-en-los-tiempos-del-covid-19/.