From making offerings to indigenous gods to sancti reges et duces, or the Arpad adventure with the sacred

The article explores the specificity of early medieval Hungarian Christianity, which lay in the existence of two metropolises in the Kingdom, i.e., Esztergom and Kalocsa, and the belief in the sanctity of the Árpád dynasty, expressed as early as in the second half of the thirteenth century.

Economic policy of Boleslaw V towards the monasteries of the Duchy of Kraków and Sandomierz as an attempt to modernise the monarchy

This paper is an attempt to characterise the policy of the Duke of KrakówSandomierz Bolesław V towards the monasteries functioning in his realm. The author will discuss only those conventions, which helped the duke implement his economic policy, notably Benedictine, Cistercian, or Norbertine orders. Excluded are orders related to the new beggar movement, the only exception being the Zawochost-Skała Order of Saint Clare. The aim is to show the role of by the monasteries in the modernisation of the Kraków–Sandomierz state, since in the second half of the thirteenth century Małopolska attempted to catch up economic gap separating it from its neighbours. Duke Boleslaw was aware of the enormity of the challenges that awaited him at the beginning of his reign. The thirteenth century saw a great conflict between the secular and spiritual power. One look at the situation in other districts – Wielkopolska, Mazovia and Silesia is enough to notice the significant role of the aspirations of the clergy in the internal politics of those principalities. A young ruler from Kraków was cognisant of the ample opportunities that the collaboration with the Church could bring. With a view to achieving his economic objectives, he nevertheless decided on the cooperation with religious orders. It was an understandable move, given that monasteries had proper financial background, as well as a network of contacts necessary for the modernisation of the Duchy of Kraków–Sandomierz. Furthermore, the role of monasteries in the process of colonisation and the acquisition of new settlers, as well as specialists in the field of mining, cannot be overestimated. Bolesław V was aware of the role of the development of rural settlement and its interrelateion with urbanisation in the increase of the well-being of the entire state. Patterns from Silesia, Bohemia and Hungary indicated the monarch how he could enhance economic development of his land, and strengthen his own power. Such transformations nonetheless required considerable financial outlay. Since princely treasure, ruined by invasion, was unable to provide adequate investment for modernization, the monarch supported the colonisation run by religious orders. In order to facilitate their economic development, legal and economic immunities were bestowed upon them. The duke supported also the assemblage of land. Immunisation was beneficial not only for monks but also the ruler: the duke deprived the administrative apparatus of their judiciary prerogatives and took over part of its mandate and income. At the same time, the elimination of obsolete laws of princely duties provided the monasteries with the possibility of conducting an extensive colonisation action based on given freedoms, which resulted in the dissemination of novel economic solutions brought from the west by the monasteries. This knowledge included a comprehensive program of reconstruction of the domain in order to increase revenue. It is worthy of note that the Cistercians became the ruler’s chef specialists in the search for salt and other natural resources. The monks from Wąchock provided not only professional help in the search for salt, but also repair of salt brewing equipment. Owing to the development of this industry, salt mines of Wieliczka and Bochnia began to yield enormous revenues, which replenished princely treasure following the expropriation reform of Bolesław V. The major role of religious orders in the modernisation of the Duchy of Kraków–Sandomierz is therefore evident. Backed by regal authority and under the duke’s care, they were able to fully exploit their economic potential for the colonisation and urbanisation of Małopolska. Their cooperation with the monarch brought them immunities essential for the development of their possessions. Beneficial to both parties, this police significantly contributed to the changes in social relations in the state of Bolesław V. Patterns of economic restructuration imported by the monasteries became a model employed, albeit with some delay, also by the nobility.

Celem artykułu jest prezentacja specyfiki czeskiego Kościoła i religijności Czechów. Autorka inspiruje się pracami głównie czeskich badaczy (Petr Fiala, Dana Hamplová, Tomáš Halík, Pavel Hošek, Jan Jandourek, Max Kašparů, Dušan Lužný, David Václavík, Michal Martinek, Zdeněk R. Nešpor, Pavel Říčan, Ivo O. Štampach, O. Štěch, David Václavík) i rozwija zawarte w nich myśli. Zajmuje się stereotypem Czecha, charakterystyką czeskiego wierzącego, czeskiego duchownego oraz czeskiego Kościoła, znajdując źródła wskazanych odmienności w wydarzeniach historycznych i ich interpretacji. W zakończeniu artykułu przedstawiono wnioski i przybliżono odbiorcy „obraz czeskiego Boga”.

The situation of the Orthodox Church in Turkey in 1949

Athenagoras I (born Aristocles Matthew Spyrou, 1886–1972), who became the new Patriarch of the Orthodox Church in Turkey in 1949, which bears the name of the Patriarchate Fener. First and foremost, however, it must be noted that for the first time in the history of the Patriarchate Fener, Athenagoras I was elected abroad to the Patriarch, who was not a citizen of Turkey. The article analyzed the situation of the Orthodox Church in Turkey, after the change of power in this organization in 1949.

Mother of God, Banish Putin. Feminists Against Authoritarianism in Russia

The events that took place in Russia at the end of 2011 – the rigged parliamentary elections and the nomination of Vladimir Putin as presidential candidate, his return to the Kremlin after four years, caused numerous protests on a previously unknown scale. According to various estimates, tens of thousands of dissatisfied citizens took to the streets of Moscow. They were led by Alexei Navalny and Boris Nemtsov, who was later murdered in 2015. The public support of the authorities and the condemnation of the protesters by Patriarch Cyril – the head of the Russian Orthodox Church, was met with a reaction from a now outraged society. On February, 21 2012, the famous feminist group Pussy Riot, staged a performance in the building of the Council of Christ the Saviour in Moscow. The performance was to be a form of protest against the informal alliance of „the throne and the altar”. This informal alliance has been present in Russia for many years, it obliges both sides to mutual support, especially in times of crisis. The trial of the three members of the Pussy Riot group – Nadezhda Tolokonnikova, Ekaterina Samucevich and Maria Alokhina was strictly political, despite strict efforts of judges and prosecutors to change its character. Under the pretence of offending religious feelings, a political lynch was carried out against the three women. The real reason for such harsh actions, was disobedience against the head of the Russian state and standing in opposition to the authoritarian form of government. The phoney trial was treated as a warning to the system’s opponents, for them to think twice before undertaking any actions against the state authorities. Pussy Riot’s performance and its consequences have provoked many questions about the condition of the rule of law in Russia and the durability of Vladimir Putin’s regime. The article describes the earlier activities of Pussy Riot, background of the events preceding performance in the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, a trial and the world’s response to the verdict. The research area durability and stability of political system in Russia during the presidency of Vladimir Putin and what it guarantees. The main hypothesis is the assumption that any manifestation or insubordination to the existing order in Russia is treated as an affront, and every person undertaking such action must be severely punished and stigmatized. The research method used in the article is an analysis of written sources.

Research of monuments of stone sacred architecture of the nher «Pereiaslav» (1991–2020): historiography

An attempt at historiographical analysis dedicated to the monuments of stone sacred architecture of the National Historical and Ethnographic Reserve «Pereiaslav» was made in this research. These monuments are listed on the State Register of Immovable Monuments of Ukraine by the Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine № 929 of October 10, 2012 under security numbers: 100030/1-N, 100030/2-N, 100031/1- N, 100031/2-N. These include: Ascension Cathedral (1700), St. Michael’s Church (1750) and the bell tower with the refectory of St. Michael’s Church (1747). The bell tower of Ascension Cathedral (1770–1776), which is on the balance of Pereiaslav UTC and is an integral part of the complex of monuments of Ascension Monastery 1700–1776, was taken into account too. The results of the study of the above sacred monuments should be considered as part of the author’s research. The subject of this research is the study of scientific literature on cultural heritage sites of the National Historical and Ethnographic Reserve «Pereiaslav». Publications on this issue should be considered within two periods: the soviet (1954−1991) and modern (1991−2019). An overview of scientific works published during the modern period, characterized by an increase of scientific interest in sacred stone monuments of architecture of the National Historical and Ethnographic Reserve «Pereiaslav» was offered in this study. In order to convenience of perception, we divided these studies into two groups according to their thematic content. The first one includes publications directly devoted to the study of these objects. Among the researchers in this group are: D. A. Teteria, M. T. Tovkailo, O. V. Yurchenko, L. M. Nabok, O. V. Kolybenko, V. V. Vecherskyi, V. P. Melnyk, I. V. Bilchenko and other. Another group consists of generalized and fragmentary researches, related to the study of the history of Pereiaslav and Ukraine in general. These include studies of various thematic areas, where monastic complexes of Pereiaslav are mentioned in a certain aspect. Among the researchers in this group are: O. V. Lesyk, V. V. Nikitina, M. I. Sikorskyi, H. M. Buzian, M. V. Rodobudko, O. V. Tkachenko, N. M. Soloviova, V. M. Lialko, H. P. Tkachenko, N. H. Tkachenko, L. V. Lykhovyd, I. I. Kucherenko, S. O. Korkach, A. Kuzmenko, N. V. Kostenko, Yu. V. Avramenko, O. I. Tonkonoh, V. M. Shakula, O. M. Zham, O. A. Horbovyi, L. V. Naumenko, S. M. Zuber, S. M. Zakharchenko ta Yu. S. Fihurnyi, Yu. A. Mytsyk ta I. Yu. Tarasenko, V. Yu. Vysharovskyi, S. S. Dembitskyi, N. V. Kostiuk, I. H. Dunaina, S. A. Teteria, N. A. Boiko, M. V. Shkira, N. M. Shkira, A. O. Ivanenko, O. A. Tarapon, T. Yu. Nahaiko, S. V. Taranets, V. A. Lokha, V. P. Kotsur, O. I. Hurzhii, O. L. Lastovska and other. Our work on collecting and systematizing scientific literature on stone sacred monuments of architecture will be used in the future during the creation of a bibliographic index of works on objects under the operational management of the NHER «Pereiaslav».

Justification of Church Independence in the Theological Doctrine of the Late Byzantine Period

The article considers the main mechanisms and principles of functioning of the church-administrative system of governance of the Ecumenical Church. It is established that church life is a lively and dynamic process. The church is steadily moving forward and is forced to respond to societal demands and problems. It is proved that the formation of two approaches (Greek and Slavic) to the understanding of the structure of the system of Universal Orthodoxy was the cause of the crisis in the church. It is noted that “church misunderstandings” became apparent after the Great Council of Crete and the granting of the Tomos to the Ukrainian Church. The study highlights the transformational processes of the institution of autocephaly in late Byzantium period, as well as its importance for the modern church. It is proved that the ecclesiological conditionality of the autocephalous principle stems from the very nature of the church. The article argues that in the Orthodox tradition there is no generally accepted interpretation of the interdependence of gaining state independence and the autocephalous status of churches. From the point of view of Orthodox ecclesiology, it is obvious that, by its very structure, every church must necessarily be autocephalous. However, in practice, a number of national churches are waiting for PanOrthodox recognition for a long time. During the period of late Byzantium, autocephaly was transformed from a natural state to an ecclesiasticalpolitical phenomenon. And in the modern period – to an exclusively political one. It is established that the key task of modern world theology is to study the problem of autocephaly. Since the beginning of Christianity, autocephaly has become the basic principle of the apostolic foundation of the community-church, taking into account the national and ethnic characteristics of the population of the then Roman Empire. It is emphasized that autocephaly is one of the oldest institutions of the Church, which is the main feature of Orthodoxy. It is proved that the state is always an interested party in the process of church independence. Since each independent country seeks to have its own church, it acts as a protector of the powers and rights of the church located within its territorial authority. This significantly affects the current geopolitical relations between the Local Churches. It has been established that autocephaly was an adaptation of the church to the political geography of the state. The article establishes that the Ecumenical Church, while being united in its essence, is divided into independent Local Churches on an administrative and national basis. The article establishes that the institutional disputes of modern Local Churches in most cases are related to the “canonical territory” and the limits of their influence. This is directly related to the acquisition of autocephalous status. It is concluded that such global problems of All-Church significance can be solved exclusively by a conciliar way and reasonable means. This requires the participation of all Orthodox hierarchs, including unrecognized churches, to take into account their position.

The article examines the role of memoirs in depicting the cultural and religious life of Ukraine during the revolutionary years of 1917-1921. The analysis focuses on memoirs written by contemporaries and participants of the Ukrainian Revolution. Memoirists drew attention to the issues of Ukrainian language, literature, art, and education. They depicted the efforts of cultural figures in supporting and developing Ukrainian culture, changes in the cultural environment, and society’s reaction to these changes. The authors of memoirs discuss churches and religious organizations during the revolutionary period, describing the shifts in attitudes toward religion under the influence of political changes, the interaction between the church and political structures, and the persecution of priests and monks by the Bolsheviks. They share their thoughts on the impact of revolutionary events on their personal lives, perception of culture, and religion. The article analyzes the memoirists’ accounts of meetings, communication, and collaboration with other prominent cultural and religious figures, as well as the exchange of ideas, discussions, and joint projects that contributed to the development of cultural and religious life. It is revealed that the memoirs contain information about the state of societal culture and spirituality, including beliefs, customs, traditions, and moral values of that period. In the memoirs of many Ukrainian writers, artists, and other cultural figures, moments of Bolshevik presence are described as a time of creative alienation and pressure on artistic expression. With their rise to power, Ukrainian culture became dependent on the ideology and policies of the new regime, leading to a decline in artistic quality and loss of authenticity. These cultural figures also depict the challenging living and working conditions during the revolutionary period in their memoirs. Many of them were forced to leave Ukraine or go into hiding due to political persecution. This led to a decrease in activity on the Ukrainian cultural scene and a reduction in the number of book publications. Despite the difficult circumstances, Ukrainian cultural figures continued to create and preserve cultural heritage. Many of them actively engaged in collecting and preserving Ukrainian cultural heritage, which suffered significant losses during the revolution. A common tendency in the memoirs of contemporaries of the Ukrainian Revolution of 1917-1921 is the personal perspective on events and their impacts on the culture and religion of Ukraine during the periods of the Central Rada, the Hetmanate of P. Skoropadsky, and the Directorate. They provide a historical context and offer readers a unique insight into that period, helping to better understand its significance and consequences for the cultural and religious development of Ukraine.

The party ideologues of the Soviet totalitarian state artificially developed and actively introduced into the life of the titular nation of the Ukrainian SSR a new Soviet ritualism, the main goal of which was to raise from every Ukrainian a Russified citizen of the Soviet type without national identity and religious beliefs, with a Russian consciousness, mentality and language. The article proves that the ancient church and religious traditions and customs of the Ukrainian people continued to be a part of the everyday culture of Ukrainians. The religious activity of representatives of the Ukrainian ethnic group was especially observed during the celebration of Christmas, Epiphany, Easter and other church holidays. And although the number of adherents of religious rites in the republic was different – from less in the East to more in the West, Christian values, despite atheism, continued to be the basis of the spiritual life of the absolute majority of Ukrainians.

Christianity in China

This paper is devoted mainly to the fate of the Christianisation of China over the centuries. It discusses the history of religion in individual dynasties, its development over the following years, attempts to convert the Chinese population by missionaries from various orders – Dominicans and Jesuits, memorable martyrs at the turn of 19th and 21st centuries – the division of Christianity, and the short fate of non-Christian religions in China.

The paper’s proposed area of analysis surrounds Christian education in the direct sense related to the implementation of specific goals of Christian education, and indirectly, including aspects involving the psychologist and educator taking educational actions while consciously adopting a personality attitude. The article is a scientific study on the historical development of Christian principles of education, especially in their psychological and pedagogical dimension. It shows the evolution of these educational principles and, most importantly from the research perspective, the various conditions of gradual but clear changes in this area over the centuries in the teaching and practice of church centres.